The financial and business analysis below provides information which we believe is relevant to an assessment and understanding of our consolidated financial position, results of operations and cash flows. This financial and business analysis should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and related notes.

The following discussion and certain other sections of this Report contain statements that reflect our views about our future performance and constitute "forward-looking statements" under the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Forward-looking statements can be identified by words such as "outlook," "believe," "anticipate," "appear," "may," "will," "should," "intend," "plan," "estimate," "expect," "assume," "seek," "forecast," and similar references to future periods. Our views about future performance involve risks and uncertainties that are difficult to predict and, accordingly, our actual results may differ materially from the results discussed in our forward-looking statements. We caution you against relying on any of these forward-looking statements.

In addition to the various factors included in the "Executive Level Overview," "Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates" and "Outlook for the Company" sections, our future performance may be affected by the levels of residential repair and remodel activity and new home construction, our ability to maintain our strong brands and reputation and to develop new products, our ability to maintain our competitive position in our industries, our reliance on key customers, the cost and availability of raw materials and increasing tariffs, our dependence on third-party suppliers, risks associated with international operations and global strategies, our ability to achieve the anticipated benefits of our strategic initiatives, our ability to successfully execute our acquisition strategy and integrate businesses that we have and may acquire, our ability to attract, develop and retain talented personnel, risks associated with our reliance on information systems and technology, and our ability to achieve the anticipated benefits from our investments in new technology. These and other factors are discussed in detail in Item 1A "Risk Factors" of this Report. Any forward-looking statement made by us speaks only as of the date on which it was made. Factors or events that could cause our actual results to differ may emerge from time to time, and it is not possible for us to predict all of them. Unless required by law, we undertake no obligation to update publicly any forward-looking statements as a result of new information, future events or otherwise.

Executive Level Overview

We design, manufacture and distribute branded home improvement and building products. These products are sold primarily for repair and remodeling activity and new home construction through home center retailers, mass merchandisers, hardware stores, homebuilders, distributors, online retailers, and direct to the consumer.

2018 Results

Net sales were positively impacted by the acquisition of The L.D. Kichler Co. ("Kichler") in March 2018 and Mercury Plastics, Inc. ("Mercury") in December 2017. Net sales were also positively impacted by increased sales volume resulting from increased repair and remodel activity and new home construction in the U.S., and net selling price increases primarily in the U.S. Such increases were partially offset by the divestiture of Moores Furniture Group Limited ("Moores") in the fourth quarter of 2017 and Arrow Fastener Co., LLC ("Arrow") in the second quarter of 2017. Our results of operations were negatively impacted by increased other expenses, such as logistics costs, salaries, and Enterprise Resource Planning System ("ERP") costs, and the recognition of the inventory step up adjustment established as part of the acquisition of Kichler. Such negative impacts were partially offset by benefits associated with cost savings initiatives and increased sales volume.

Our Plumbing Products segment was negatively impacted by an increase in commodity costs, unfavorable sales mix, and an increase in other expenses (such as salaries, logistics costs and ERP costs). These negative impacts were partially offset by increased sales volume, the benefits associated with cost savings initiatives and increased net selling prices. Our Decorative Architectural Products segment was negatively impacted by an increase in commodity costs, the recognition of the inventory step up adjustment established as part of the acquisition of Kichler, and increased depreciation and amortization expense. These negative impacts were partially offset by increased net selling prices of paints and other coating products, benefits associated with cost savings initiatives and increased sales volume. Our Cabinetry Products segment was negatively impacted by an increase in other expenses (such as logistics costs), program launch and display expenses, and unfavorable sales mix. These negative impacts were partially offset by benefits associated with cost savings initiatives, increased sales volume and the divestiture of Moores. Our Windows and Other Specialty Products segment was negatively impacted by an increase in other expenses (such as warranty-related costs and higher labor costs), an increase in commodity costs, decreased sales volume and the divestiture of Arrow. These negative impacts were partially offset by increased net selling prices and the benefits associated with cost savings initiatives.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Our discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based upon our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America ("GAAP"). The preparation of these financial statements requires us to make certain estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, disclosure of any contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting periods. We regularly review our estimates and assumptions, which are based upon historical experience, as well as current economic conditions and various other factors that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of certain assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates and assumptions.

Note A to the consolidated financial statements includes our accounting policies, estimates and methods used in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements.

We believe that the following critical accounting policies are affected by significant judgments and estimates used in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements.

Revenue Recognition and Receivables

We recognize revenue as control of our products is transferred to our customers, which is generally at the time of shipment or upon delivery based on the contractual terms with our customers, or when services are completed. Control over certain of our custom-made window products transfers to our customers as production is completed, and revenue is recognized over the production period for these products, as our products do not have an alternative use and we have an enforceable right to payment during the production period. The production period of our custom-made window products generally does not lapse days, and for these products we currently recognize revenue based on the output of production, which is a faithful depiction of the transfer of these products to our customers. We provide customer programs and incentive offerings, including special pricing and co-operative advertising arrangements, promotions and other volume-based incentives. These customer programs and incentives are considered variable consideration. We include in revenue variable consideration only to the extent that it is probable that a significant reversal in the amount of cumulative revenue recognized will not occur when the variable consideration is resolved. This determination is made based upon known customer program and incentive offerings at the time of sale, and expected sales volume for ecasts as it relates to our volume-based incentives. This determination is updated each reporting period.

We monitor our customer receivable balances and the credit worthiness of our customers on an on-going basis and maintain allowances for doubtful accounts receivable for estimated losses resulting from the inability of customers to make required payments. During downturns in our markets, declines in the financial condition and creditworthiness of customers impact the credit risk of the receivables involved, and we have incurred additional bad debt expense related to customer defaults. Allowances are estimated based upon specific customer balances, where a risk of default has been identified, and also include a provision for non-customer specific defaults based upon historical collection, return and write-off activity.

Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets

We record the excess of purchase cost over the fair value of net tangible assets of acquired companies as goodwill or other identifiable intangible assets. In the fourth quarter of each year, or as events occur or circumstances change that would more likely than not reduce the fair value of a reporting unit below its carrying amount, we complete the impairment testing of goodwill utilizing a discounted cash flow method. We selected the discounted cash flow methodology because we believe that it is comparable to what would be used by market participants. We have defined our reporting units and completed the impairment testing of goodwill at the operating segment level.

Determining market values using a discounted cash flow method requires us to make significant estimates and assumptions, including long-term projections of cash flows, market conditions and appropriate discount rates. Our judgments are based upon historical experience, current market trends, consultations with external valuation specialists and other information. While we believe that the estimates and assumptions underlying the valuation methodology are reasonable, different estimates and assumptions could result in different outcomes. In estimating future cash flows, we rely on internally generated five-year forecasts for sales and operating profits, and, currently, a two to three percent long-term assumed annual growth rate of cash flows for periods after the five-year forecast. We generally develop these forecasts based upon, among other things, recent sales data for existing products, planned timing of new product launches, estimated repair and remodel activity and estimated housing starts. Our assumptions included a relatively

stable U.S. Gross Domestic Product growing at approximately 2.5 percent per annum and a eurozone Gross Domestic Product growing at approximately 1.9 percent per annum over the five-year forecast.

We utilize our weighted average cost of capital of approximately 9.0 percent as the basis to determine the discount rate to apply to the estimated future cash flows. Our weighted average cost of capital increased in 2018 as compared to 2017 , primarily due to an increased market required rate of return on equity, as well as an increase in the after-tax cost of debt, which was driven by a reduction in the effective tax rate . In 2018 , based upon our assessment of the risks impacting each of our businesses, we applied a risk premium to increase the discount rate to a range of 11.0 percent to 13.5 percent for our reporting units.

If the carrying amount of a reporting unit exceeds its fair value, an impairment loss is recognized to the extent that a reporting unit's recorded carrying value exceeds its fair value, not to exceed the carrying amount of goodwill in that reporting unit.

In the fourth quarter of 2018 , we estimated that future discounted cash flows projected for all of our reporting units were greater than the carrying values. Accordingly, we did not recognize any impairment charges for goodwill. A 10 percent decrease in the estimated fair value of our reporting units would not have resulted in an impairment for any reporting unit.

We review our other indefinite-lived intangible assets for impairment annually, in the fourth quarter, or as events occur or circumstances change that indicate the assets may be impaired without regard to the business unit. Potential impairment is identified by comparing the fair value of an other indefinite-lived intangible asset to its carrying value. We utilized a relief-from-royalty model to estimate the fair value of other indefinite-lived intangible assets. We consider the implications of both external (e.g., market growth, competition and local economic conditions) and internal (e.g., product sales and expected product growth) factors and their potential impact on cash flows related to the intangible asset in both the near- and long-term. We also consider the profitability of the business, among other factors, to determine the royalty rate for use in the impairment assessment.

We utilize our weighted average cost of capital of approximately 9.0 percent as the basis to determine the discount rate to apply to the estimated future cash flows. In 2018 , based upon our assessment of the risks impacting each of our businesses, we applied a risk premium to increase the discount rate to a range of 12.0 percent to 13.5 percent for our other indefinite-lived intangible assets.

In the fourth quarter of 2018 , we estimated that future discounted cash flows projected for our other indefinite-lived intangible assets were greater than the carrying values. Accordingly, we did not recognize any impairment charges for other indefinite-lived intangible assets. A 10 percent decrease in the estimated fair value of our other indefinite-lived intangible assets would have resulted in a $4 million impairment for trade names related to businesses acquired within the past two years.

Employee Retirement Plans

As of January 1, 2010, substantially all our domestic and foreign qualified and domestic non-qualified defined-benefit pension plans were frozen to future benefit accruals.

Accounting for defined-benefit pension plans involves estimating the cost of benefits to be provided in the future, based upon vested years of service, and attributing those costs over the time period each employee works. We develop our pension costs and obligations from actuarial valuations. Inherent in these valuations are key assumptions regarding expected return on plan assets, mortality rates and discount rates for obligations and expenses. We consider current market conditions, including changes in interest rates, in selecting these assumptions. While we believe that the estimates and assumptions underlying the valuation methodology are reasonable, different estimates and assumptions could result in different reported pension costs and obligations within our consolidated financial statements.

In December 2018 , our discount rate for obligations increased to a weighted average of 3.8  percent from 3.3  percent. The discount rate for obligations is based upon the expected duration of each defined-benefit pension plan's liabilities matched to the December 31, 2018 Willis Towers Watson Rate Link Curve. The discount rates we use for our defined-benefit pension plans ranged from 1.5  percent to 4.2  percent, with the most significant portion of the liabilities having a discount rate for obligations of 4.1  percent or higher. The assumed asset return was primarily 7.0  percent, reflecting the expected long-term return on plan assets based upon an analysis of expected and historical rates of return of various asset classes utilizing the current and long-term target asset allocation of the plan assets.

Our net underfunded amount for our qualified defined-benefit pension plans, which is the difference between the projected benefit obligation and plan assets, decreased to $226 million at December 31, 2018 from $266 million at

December 31, 2017 . Our projected benefit obligation for our unfunded, non-qualified, defined-benefit pension plans decreased to $155 million at December 31, 2018 from $170 million at December 31, 2017 . These unfunded plans are not subject to the funding requirements of the Pension Protection Act of 2006. In accordance with the Pension Protection Act, the Adjusted Funding Target Attainment Percentage for the various defined-benefit pension plans ranges from 90 percent to 115 percent.

The decrease in our qualified defined-benefit pension plan projected benefit obligation was primarily impacted by an increase in the discount rate. During 2018 , we contributed $52 million to our qualified defined-benefit pension plans, and our qualified defined-benefit pension plan assets had a return of negative 4.9  percent. Refer to Note M to the consolidated financial statements for additional information.

We expect pension expense for our qualified defined-benefit pension plans to be $16 million in 2019 compared with $8 million in 2018 . If we assumed that the future return on plan assets was 50 basis points lower than the assumed asset return and the discount rate decreased by 50 basis points, the 2019 pension expense would increase by $4 million. We expect pension expense for our non-qualified defined-benefit pension plans to be $8 million in 2019 , compared to $9 million in 2018 .

We anticipate that we will be required to contribute approximately $15 million in 2019 to our qualified and non-qualified defined-benefit plans; however, we currently anticipate contributing approximately $66 million in 2019 . Refer to Note M to the consolidated financial statements for further information regarding the funding of our plans.

Income Taxes

Deferred taxes are recognized based on the future tax consequences of differences between the financial

statement carrying value of assets and liabilities and their respective tax basis. The future realization of deferred tax

assets depends on the existence of sufficient taxable income in future periods. Possible sources of taxable income

include taxable income in carryback periods, the future reversal of existing taxable temporary differences recorded as a deferred tax liability, tax-planning strategies that generate future income or gains in excess of anticipated losses in the carryforward period and projected future taxable income.

If, based upon all available evidence, both positive and negative, it is more likely than not (more than 50 percent likely) such deferred tax assets will not be realized, a valuation allowance is recorded. Significant weight is given to positive and negative evidence that is objectively verifiable. A company's three-year cumulative loss position is significant negative evidence in considering whether deferred tax assets are realizable, and the accounting guidance restricts the amount of reliance we can place on projected taxable income to support the recovery of the deferred tax assets.

We maintain a valuation allowance on certain state and foreign deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2018 . Should we determine that we would not be able to realize our remaining deferred tax assets in these jurisdictions in the future, an adjustment to the valuation allowance would be recorded in the period such determination is made. The need to maintain a valuation allowance against deferred tax assets may cause greater volatility in our effective tax rate.

The current accounting guidance allows the recognition of only those income tax positions that have a greater than 50 percent likelihood of being sustained upon examination by the taxing authorities. We believe that there is an increased potential for volatility in our effective tax rate because this threshold allows for changes in the income tax environment and, to a greater extent, the inherent complexities of income tax law in a substantial number of jurisdictions, which may affect the computation of our liability for uncertain tax positions.

While we believe we have adequately provided for our uncertain tax positions, amounts asserted by taxing

authorities could vary from our liability for uncertain tax positions. Accordingly, additional provisions for tax-related

matters, including interest and penalties, could be recorded in income tax expense in the period revised estimates are made or the underlying matters are settled or otherwise resolved.

The comprehensive U.S. tax reform, which generally became effective in 2018 has had a significant impact on our effective tax rate and taxes paid primarily due to the reduction in the U.S. Federal corporate tax rate from 35 percent to 21 percent and the additional U.S. taxes on our foreign earnings. The continued impact from U.S. tax reform may differ from our current estimates due to the issuance and finalization of future regulatory guidance.

Warranty

We offer full and limited warranties on certain products, with warranty periods ranging up to the lifetime of the product to the original consumer purchaser. At the time of sale, we accrue a warranty liability for the estimated future

cost to provide products, parts or services to repair or replace products to satisfy our warranty obligations. Our estimate of future costs to service our warranty obligations is based upon the information available and includes a number of factors, such as the warranty coverage, the warranty period, historical experience specific to the nature, frequency and average cost to service the claim, along with industry and demographic trends.

Certain factors and related assumptions in determining our warranty liability involve judgments and estimates and are sensitive to changes in the factors described above. We believe that the warranty accrual is appropriate; however, actual claims incurred could differ from our original estimates, which would require us to adjust our previously established accruals. Refer to Note T to the consolidated financial statements for additional information on our warranty accrual.

A significant portion of our business is at the consumer retail level through home center retailers and other major retailers. A consumer may return a product to a retail outlet that is a warranty return. However, certain retail outlets do not distinguish between warranty and other types of returns when they claim a return deduction from us. Our revenue recognition policy takes into account this type of return when recognizing revenue, and an estimate of these amounts is recorded as a deduction to net sales at the time of sale.

Litigation

We are involved in claims and litigation, including class actions and regulatory proceedings, which arise in the ordinary course of our business. Liabilities and costs associated with these matters require estimates and judgments based upon our professional knowledge and experience and that of our legal counsel. When a liability is probable of being incurred and our exposure in these matters is reasonably estimable, amounts are recorded as charges to earnings. The ultimate resolution of these exposures may differ due to subsequent developments.

Corporate Development Strategy

We expect to maintain a balanced growth strategy pursuing organic growth by maximizing the full potential of our existing core businesses and complementing our existing business with strategic acquisitions.

In addition, we actively manage our portfolio of companies by divesting of those businesses that do not align with our long-term growth strategy. We will continue to review all of our businesses to determine which businesses, if any, may not align with our long-term growth strategy.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Historically, we have largely funded our growth through cash provided by our operations, the issuance of notes in the financial markets, bank borrowings and the issuance of our common stock, including issuances for certain mergers and acquisitions. Maintaining high levels of liquidity and focusing on cash generation are among our financial strategies. Our capital allocation strategy includes reinvesting in our business, balancing share repurchases with potential acquisitions and maintaining an appropriate dividend.

Our total debt as a percent of total capitalization was 98 percent and 94 percent at December 31, 2018 and 2017 , respectively. Refer to Note K to the consolidated financial statements for additional information.

On April 16, 2018, we repaid and retired all of our $114 million , 6.625% Notes on the scheduled repayment date.

On June 21, 2017, we issued $300 million of 3.5% Notes due November 15, 2027 and $300 million of 4.5% Notes due May 15, 2047. We received proceeds of $599 million, net of discount, for the issuance of these Notes. The Notes are senior indebtedness and are redeemable at our option at the applicable redemption price. On June 27, 2017, proceeds from the debt issuances, together with cash on hand, were used to repay and early retire $299 million of our 7.125% Notes due March 15, 2020, $74 million of our 5.95% Notes due March 15, 2022, $62 million of our 7.75% Notes due August 1, 2029, and $100 million of our 6.5% Notes due August 15, 2032. In connection with these early retirements, we incurred a loss on debt extinguishment of $107 million , which was recorded as interest expense.

On March 17, 2016 , we issued $400 million of 3.5% Notes due April 1, 2021 and $500 million of 4.375% Notes due April 1, 2026. We received proceeds of $896 million, net of discount, for the issuance of these Notes. The Notes are senior indebtedness and are redeemable at our option at the applicable redemption price. On April 15, 2016, proceeds from the debt issuances, together with cash on hand, were used to repay and early retire all of our $1 billion , 6.125% Notes which were due on October 3, 2016 and all of our $300 million , 5.85% Notes which were due on March 15, 2017. In connection with these early retirements, we incurred a loss on debt extinguishment of $40 million, which was recorded as interest expense.

On March 28, 2013, we entered into a credit agreement (the "Credit Agreement") with a bank group, with an aggregate commitment of $1.25 billion and a maturity date of March 28, 2018. On May 29, 2015 and August 28, 2015, we amended the Credit Agreement with the bank group (the "Amended Credit Agreement"). The Amended Credit Agreement reduces the aggregate commitment to $750 million and extends the maturity date to May 29, 2020. Under the Amended Credit Agreement, at our request and subject to certain conditions, we can increase the aggregate commitment up to an additional $375 million with the current bank group or new lenders. Refer to Note K to the consolidated financial statements for additional information.

The Amended Credit Agreement contains financial covenants requiring us to maintain (A) a maximum net leverage ratio, as adjusted for certain items, of 4.0 to 1.0, and (B) a minimum interest coverage ratio, as adjusted for certain items, equal to or greater than 2.5 to 1.0. We were in compliance with all covenants and had no borrowings under our Amended Credit Agreement at December 31, 2018 . We expect to remain in compliance with these covenants through at least the next year.

On March 9, 2018, we acquired substantially all of the net assets of Kichler. The purchase price, net of $2 million cash acquired, consisted of $549 million paid with cash on hand.

In the third quarter of 2018, we increased our quarterly dividend to $.12 per common share from $.105 per common share. During 2018, we repurchased 18.6 million shares of our common stock for cash aggregating $654 million .

We had cash, cash investments and short-term bank deposits of approximately $559 million at December 31, 2018 . Our cash and cash investments consist of overnight interest bearing money market demand accounts, time deposit accounts, and money market mutual funds containing government securities and treasury obligations. While we attempt to diversify these investments in a prudent manner to minimize risk, it is possible that future changes in the financial markets could affect the security or availability of these investments. Our short-term bank deposits consist of time deposits with maturities of 12 months or less.

Of the $559 million and $1.3 billion of cash, cash investments and short-term bank deposits we held at December 31, 2018 and 2017 , respectively, $270 million and $759 million, respectively, is held in our foreign subsidiaries. If these funds were needed for our operations in the U.S., their repatriation into the U.S. would not result in significant additional U.S. income tax or foreign withholding tax, as we have recorded such taxes on substantially all undistributed foreign earnings, except for those that are legally restricted.

We utilize derivative and hedging instruments to manage our exposure to currency fluctuations, primarily related to the European euro, British pound and the U.S. dollar; occasionally, we have also used derivative and hedging instruments to manage our exposure to commodity cost fluctuations, primarily zinc and copper, and interest rate fluctuations, primarily related to debt issuances. We review our hedging program, derivative positions and overall risk management on a regular basis. We currently do not have any derivative instruments for which we have designated hedge accounting.

Our current ratio was 1.6 to 1 and 2.0 to 1 at December 31, 2018 and 2017 , respectively. The decrease in our current ratio is due primarily to the cash on hand we paid for our acquisition of Kichler, partially offset by the acquired working capital.

Our working capital days were as follows:

Net cash provided by operations of $1,032 million consisted primarily of net income adjusted for certain non-cash items, including depreciation and amortization expense of $156 million , stock-based compensation expense and amortization expense related to in-store displays, changes in working capital amounts, as well as employee withholding taxes paid on stock-based compensation, which is classified as a financing activity. These amounts were partially offset by contributions to our defined-benefit pension plans.

Net cash used for financing activities was $1,020 million , primarily due to $654 million for the repurchase and retirement of Company common stock (as part of our strategic initiative to drive shareholder value), $134 million for the payment of cash dividends, $114 million for the retirement of our 6.625% of Notes due April 15, 2018, $89 million for dividends paid to noncontrolling interests and $42 million for employee withholding taxes paid on stock-based compensation.

In May 2017, our Board of Directors authorized the repurchase, for retirement, of up to $1.5 billion of shares of our common stock in open-market transactions or otherwise. During 2018, we repurchased and retired 18.6 million shares of our common stock, (including 0.7 million shares repurchased to offset the dilutive impact of long-term stock awards granted in 2018). At December 31, 2018, we had $636 million remaining under the authorization. Consistent with past practice and as part of our strategic initiative to drive shareholder value, we anticipate using approximately $600 million of cash for share repurchases (including shares which will be purchased to offset any dilution from long-term stock awards granted as part of our compensation programs) in 2019.

Net cash used for investing activities was $651 million , primarily driven by $549 million for the acquisition of Kichler, net of cash acquired, and $219 million for capital expenditures, partially offset by $108 million of net proceeds from the disposition of short-term bank deposits.

We continue to invest in our manufacturing and distribution operations to increase our productivity, improve customer service and support new product innovation. Capital expenditures for 2018 were $219 million , compared with $173 million for 2017 and $180 million for 2016 . For 2019 , capital expenditures, excluding any potential acquisitions, are expected to be approximately $200 million. Depreciation and amortization expense for 2018 totaled $156 million , compared with $127 million for 2017 and $134 million for 2016 . For 2019 , depreciation and amortization expense, excluding any potential 2019 acquisitions, is expected to be approximately $175 million. Amortization expense totaled $24 million in 2018 , compared with $11 million and $10 million in 2017 and 2016 , respectively.

Costs of environmental responsibilities and compliance with existing environmental laws and regulations have not had, nor do we expect them to have, a material effect on our capital expenditures, financial position or results of operations.

We believe that our present cash balance and cash flows from operations, and our ability to utilize our Amended Credit Agreement are sufficient to fund our near-term working capital and other investment needs. We believe that our longer-term working capital and other general corporate requirements will be satisfied through cash flows from operations and, to the extent necessary, from bank borrowings and future financial market activities.

Consolidated Results of Operations

We report our financial results in accordance with GAAP in the United States. However, we believe that certain non-GAAP performance measures and ratios, used in managing the business, may provide users of this financial information with additional meaningful comparisons between current results and results in prior periods. Non-GAAP performance measures and ratios should be viewed in addition to, and not as an alternative for, our reported results under GAAP.

The following discussion of consolidated results of operations compares each respective period to the same period of the immediately preceding year.

Net sales for 2018 increased five percent due to the acquisition of Kichler in March 2018 and Mercury in December 2017. Net sales were also positively impacted by increased sales volume of plumbing products and cabinetry, which, in aggregate, increased sales by three percent, and net selling price increases of paints and other coating products, plumbing products and windows, which, in aggregate, increased sales by two percent. Foreign currency translation also increased sales by one percent. Net sales for 2018 were negatively affected by the divestiture of our Arrow and Moores businesses, which, in aggregate, decreased sales by one percent.

Net sales for 2017 were positively affected by increased sales volume of plumbing products, paints and other coating products and builders' hardware, which, in aggregate, increased sales by four percent. Net sales for 2017 were also positively affected by favorable sales mix of cabinets, North American plumbing products and North American windows, as well as net selling price increases of windows and international plumbing products, which, in aggregate, increased sales two percent. Net sales for 2017 were negatively affected by lower sales volume of cabinets, the

divestiture of our Arrow and Moores businesses, and an unfavorable sales mix of international plumbing products, which, in aggregate, decreased sales by two percent.

Net sales for 2016 were positively affected by increased sales volume of plumbing products, paints and other coating products and builders' hardware. Net sales for 2016 were also positively affected by favorable sales mix of cabinets and windows, and net selling price increases of North American windows and North American and international plumbing products. Net sales for 2016 were negatively affected by lower sales volume of cabinets and lower net selling prices of paints and other coating products.

Our gross profit margins were 32.2 percent, 34.2  percent and 33.4  percent in 2018 , 2017 and 2016 , respectively. The 2018 gross profit margin was negatively impacted by an increase in commodity costs, the recognition of the inventory step up adjustment established as a part of the the acquisition of Kichler, an increase in other expenses (such as logistics costs and salaries) and unfavorable sales mix. These negative impacts were partially offset by an increase in net selling prices, the benefits associated with cost savings initiatives, and increased sales volume. The 2017 gross profit margin was positively impacted by increased sales volume, a more favorable relationship between net selling prices and commodity costs, and cost savings initiatives.

Selling, general and administrative expenses as a percent of sales were 17.7 percent in 2018 compared with 18.6  percent in 2017 and 18.7  percent in 2016 . The decrease in selling, general and administrative expenses, as a percentage of sales, was driven by leverage of fixed expenses, due primarily to increased sales volume, and improved cost control.

The following table reconciles reported operating profit to operating profit, as adjusted to exclude certain items, dollars in millions:

Operating profit margin in 2018 was negatively affected by an increase in commodity costs, the recognition of the inventory step up adjustment established as a part of the the acquisition of Kichler and an increase in other expenses (such as logistics costs, salaries and ERP costs). These negative impacts were partially offset by increased net selling prices, benefits associated with cost savings initiatives and increased sales volume. Operating profit margin in 2017 was positively impacted by increased sales volume, cost savings initiatives, and a more favorable relationship between net selling prices and commodity costs. Operating profit margin in 2017 was negatively impacted by an increase in strategic growth investments and certain other expenses, including stock-based compensation, health insurance costs, trade show costs and increased head count.

Due to the recently-announced increase in tariffs on imported materials from China, and assuming tariffs rise to 25 percent in 2019, we could be exposed to approximately $150 million of potential annual direct cost increases. We will work to mitigate the impact of these tariffs through a combination of price increases, supplier negotiations, supply chain repositioning and other internal productivity measures. 

Other Income (Expense), Net

Other, net, for 2018 included $14 million of net periodic pension and post-retirement benefit cost and $8 million of realized foreign currency losses. These expenses were partially offset by $3 million of earnings related to equity method investments and $1 million related to distributions from private equity funds.

Other, net, for 2017 included $26 million related to periodic pension and post-retirement benefit costs, $13 million net loss related to the divestitures of Moores and Arrow and $2 million related to the impairment of a private equity fund, partially offset by $3 million related to distributions from private equity funds and $1 million of earnings related to equity method investments.

Other, net, for 2016 included $32 million related to periodic pension and post-retirement benefit costs and $3 million of realized foreign currency losses, partially offset by $5 million related to distributions from private equity funds, $3 million from the redemption of auction rate securities and $2 million of earnings from equity method investments.

Interest expense was $156 million , $278 million and $229 million in 2018 , 2017 and 2016 , respectively. The decrease in interest expense from 2017 to 2018 is primarily the result of a loss on debt extinguishment of $107 million which was recorded as additional interest expense in connection with the early retirement of debt in 2017, the discharge of indebtedness in 2018 and refinancing certain debt at more favorable interest rates in 2017. The increase in interest expense from 2016 to 2017 is primarily the result of the $107 million and $40 million losses on debt extinguishment which were recorded as additional interest expense in connection with the early retirement of debt in 2017 and 2016, respectively. The increase was partially offset by the discharge of indebtedness in 2016 as well as refinancing certain debt at more favorable interest rates.

Net Income and Income Per Common Share (Attributable to Masco Corporation)

Net income and diluted income per common share for 2018 were $734 million and $2.37 per common share, respectively. Net income and diluted income per common share for 2017 were $533 million and $1.66 per common share, respectively. Net income and diluted income per common share for 2016 were $493 million and $1.48 per common share, respectively.

Our effective tax rate was 25 percent, 34 percent and 36 percent in 2018 , 2017 and 2016 , respectively. U.S. tax reform, which generally became effective in 2018, reduced the U.S. Federal tax rate from 35 percent to 21 percent. Additionally, effective January 1, 2017 we adopted ASU 2016-09, which requires the tax effects related to employee stock-based payments to be recorded to income tax expense, thus increasing the volatility in our effective tax rate. Our normalized tax rate was 25 percent, 34 percent and 36 percent in 2018 , 2017 and 2016 , respectively.

In the fourth quarter of 2018, our normalized rate was changed from 26 percent to 25 percent primarily due to a reduction in our U.S. tax on foreign earnings attributable to Global Intangible Low-taxed Income as a result of recently issued IRS regulatory guidance. Our 2018 effective tax rate equaled our normalized rate.

The 2017 effective tax rate was impacted by divestiture of businesses with no tax impact. This impact was offset by a $17 million net tax benefit from the impact of changes in U.S. Federal tax law and a $20 million tax benefit from stock-based compensation payments recognized in 2017.

The 2016 effective tax rate includes a $14 million charge to tax expense from the elimination of a disproportionate tax effect resulting from our auction rate securities being called by our counterparty during 2016. This charge was offset by a $13 million tax benefit from the recognition of a deferred tax asset on certain German net operating losses primarily resulting from a return to sustainable profitability.

Refer to Note R to the consolidated financial statements for additional information.

Outlook for the Company

We continue to successfully execute our long-term growth and capital allocation strategies by leveraging our strong brand portfolio, industry-leading positions and Masco Operating System, our methodology to drive growth and productivity. Although we have experienced commodity and logistics cost pressures, the fundamentals of the repair and remodel industry remain strong. We believe that our strong financial position and cash flow generation, together with our current strategy of investing in our industry-leading branded building products, our continued focus on innovation and our commitment to operational excellence, the active management of our portfolio and disciplined capital allocation, will allow us to drive long-term growth and create shareholder value.

Business Segment and Geographic Area Results

The following table sets forth our net sales and operating profit (loss) information by business segment and geographic area, dollars in millions.