Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The following Management’s Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) is intended to help the reader understand the results of operations and financial condition of Xerox Corporation. MD&A is provided as a supplement to, and should be read in conjunction with, our Consolidated Financial Statements and the accompanying notes. Throughout the MD&A, we refer to various notes to our Consolidated Financial Statements which appear in Item 8 of this 2017 Form 10-K, and the information contained in such notes is incorporated by reference into the MD&A in the places where such references are made.

Throughout this document, references to “we,” “our,” the “Company,” and “Xerox” refer to Xerox Corporation and its subsidiaries. References to “Xerox Corporation” refer to the stand-alone parent company and do not include its subsidiaries.

Executive Overview

With annual revenues of $10.3 billion we are a leading global provider of digital print technology and related solutions; we operate in a market estimated at approximately $85 billion. Our primary offerings span three main areas: Managed Document Services, Workplace Solutions and Graphic Communications. Our Managed Document Services offerings help customers, ranging from small businesses to global enterprises, optimize their printing and related document workflow and business processes. Our Workplace Solutions and Graphic Communications products and solutions support the work processes of our customers by providing them with an efficient, cost effective printing and communications infrastructure.

Headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, with 35,300 employees, Xerox serves customers in approximately 160 countries providing advanced document technology, services, software and genuine Xerox supplies for a range of customers including small and mid-size businesses ("SMB"), large enterprises, governments and graphic communications providers, and for our partners who serve them. In 2017 , approximately 40% of our revenue was generated outside the United States.

Market and Business Strategy

Our strategy is to apply innovation in digital print technology and services in order to increase our participation in the growth areas of our market while maintaining leadership in the more mature areas. To accomplish this, we focus on the following areas:

Post-sale Based Business Model

In 2017 , 78% of our total revenue was post-sale based, which includes document services, equipment maintenance services, consumable supplies and financing, among other elements. These revenue streams generally follow equipment placements and provide some stability to our revenue. Some of the key indicators of future post sale revenue include:

Transaction to Combine Xerox and Fuji Xerox

On January 31, 2018, Xerox entered into a Redemption Agreement with FUJIFILM Holdings Corporation, a Japanese company (“Fujifilm”), and Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd, a Japanese company in which Xerox indirectly holds a 25 percent equity interest and Fujifilm holds the remaining 75 percent equity interest (“Fuji Xerox”) (the “Redemption Agreement”), pursuant to which, among other things, (i) Fuji Xerox shall redeem for cash most or all of Fujifilm’s 75 percent equity interest in Fuji Xerox and (ii) Fuji Xerox shall become an indirect majority or wholly owned subsidiary of Xerox (the “Redemption”). The combined company resulting from the Fujifilm Transactions (as defined below) shall hereinafter be referred to as “New Fuji Xerox”.

Concurrently with the execution and delivery of the Redemption Agreement, Xerox entered into a Share Subscription Agreement with Fujifilm (the “Subscription Agreement” and together with the Redemption Agreement, the “Fujifilm Transaction Agreements”), pursuant to which, among other things, (i) Fujifilm shall subscribe for and purchase from Xerox, and Xerox shall issue to Fujifilm, a number of shares of common capital stock of Xerox (and after Closing, of New Fuji Xerox, “Common Stock”) representing 50.1 percent of (i) the aggregate number of issued and outstanding shares of Common Stock (excluding any performance shares issued under the Company’s existing employee incentive plans) plus (ii) such additional shares of Common Stock that would be issued and outstanding assuming the exercise of in-the-money options as of 5:00 p.m. New York time two business days prior to closing of the Fujifilm Transactions (as defined below) (the “Closing”) plus (iii) any shares of Common Stock reserved for issue relating to restricted stock units outstanding as of the Closing that are fully vested as of 5:00 p.m. New York time two business days prior to the Closing (collectively, the “Fully Diluted Capital Stock”) of Xerox in exchange for (A) cash and (B) all of the issued and outstanding equity interests of Fuji Xerox not held by Xerox or its wholly owned subsidiaries and (ii) Xerox shall become a direct, majority owned subsidiary of Fujifilm (the “Issuance” and together with the Redemption, the “Fujifilm Transactions”). In addition, pursuant to the terms of the Subscription Agreement, at Closing, an aggregate number of shares equal to the “True-Up Shares” (as defined in the Subscription Agreement) shall be held in escrow and released to Fujifilm as and if necessary for Fujifilm to maintain its ownership percentage.

In connection with the Fujifilm Transactions, Xerox expects to pay a special pro rata cash dividend to its shareholders in an amount equal to $2.5 billion in the aggregate (the “Special Dividend”), which is expected to be financed through the issuance of debt that will be incurred by New Fuji Xerox. Fujifilm will not be a shareholder of Xerox as of the record date for the Special Dividend and therefore will not receive any payment in respect thereof.

As noted above, immediately following the Closing, Fujifilm is expected to own approximately 50.1 percent of the Fully Diluted Capital Stock of New Fuji Xerox and Xerox shareholders are expected to own approximately 49.9 percent. Further, pursuant to that certain Shareholders Agreement, to be entered into by Xerox and Fujifilm at Closing (the “Shareholders Agreement”), the Board of Directors ofNew Fuji Xerox will have twelve directors, which will initially be composed of seven individuals designated by Fujifilm and five individuals from among the members of the Board of Directors of the Company immediately prior to Closing designated by Xerox in consultation with and subject to reasonable approved by Fujifilm. Accordingly, the Fujifilm Transactions are expected to be accounted for as a reverse acquisition.

Xerox must pay to Fujifilm a $183 million termination fee (the “Termination Fee”) in the event that the Subscription Agreement is terminated (i) by either party because the applicable shareholder approvals are not obtained if an alternative acquisition proposal is publicly announced prior to the Xerox shareholder meeting duly called for the purpose of obtaining the applicable shareholder approvals and Xerox enters into a definitive agreement with respect to, or otherwise consummates, an alternative acquisition proposal within 12 months after the termination of the Subscription Agreement; (ii) by Fujifilm (A) in connection with a material and intentional breach by Xerox of its non-solicitation obligations resulting in a third party making an alternate acquisition proposal that is reasonably likely to materially interfere with the Fujifilm Transactions or (B) following a change in the recommendation by the Board of Directors of Xerox; or (iii) by Xerox in order to enter into a definitive agreement with a third party with respect to a superior proposal, in each case as set forth in, and subject to the conditions of, the Fujifilm Transaction Agreements.

We expect the Fujifilm Transactions, which require Xerox shareholder approval, to close in the second half of 2018 subject to customary regulatory approvals, filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, tax considerations, and securing any necessary financing. Until the combination is complete, each of Xerox, Fuji Xerox and Fujifilm will continue to be separate, independent organizations and will operate as usual.

Strategic Transformation Program

Despite the decline in revenues, we have maintained our margins primarily through ongoing cost and productivity initiatives. In 2016, we initiated a three-year Strategic Transformation program to accelerate cost productivity beyond our historical range of $300 to $350 million of annual savings. The program is expected to deliver gross productivity improvements and cost savings of at least $1.7 billion over the three-year period, which include our historical savings of approximately $900 to $1,050 million. The program targets areas such as delivery, remote connectivity, sales productivity, pricing optimization, design efficiency and supply chain optimization. During the first two years, the program delivered over $1.2 billion of gross productivity improvements and cost savings, and we expect it to provide approximately $475 million of additional improvements and cost savings in 2018.

Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “Tax Act”)

On December 22, 2017, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “Tax Act”) was enacted in the U.S. The Tax Act significantly revises the U.S. corporate income tax system by, among other things, lowering the U.S. statutory corporate income tax rate from 35% to 21% and implementing a territorial tax system that includes a transition tax on deemed repatriated earnings of foreign subsidiaries.

During the fourth quarter 2017, we recorded an estimated non-cash provisional charge of $400 million reflecting the impact associated with the provisions of the Tax Act based on currently available information. Refer to Income Taxes section of the MD&A and Note 18 - Income and Other Taxes in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information.

C orrection of Fuji Xerox Misstatement in Prior Period Financial Statements

In April 2017, Fujifilm publicly announced it had formed an independent investigation committee (IIC) to conduct a review of the appropriateness of the accounting practices at Fuji Xerox’s New Zealand subsidiary related to the recovery of receivables associated with certain bundled leasing transactions that occurred in, or prior to, Fuji Xerox’s fiscal year ending March 31, 2016. The IIC’s review, completed during the second quarter 2017, identified total aggregate adjustments to Fuji Xerox’s prior period financial statements of approximately JPY 40 billion (approximately $360 million based on the Yen/U.S. Dollar spot exchange rate at March 31, 2017 of 111.89). The adjustments identified by the IIC primarily related to misstatements at Fuji Xerox’s New Zealand subsidiary as well as their Australian subsidiary and certain other adjustments. We determined that our cumulative share of the total adjustments identified as part of the IIC's investigation was approximately $90 million and impacted our fiscal years 2009 through 2017.

In the second quarter 2017, we determined that the misstatements to our equity income in prior years and in first quarter 2017 resulting from the IIC’s review were immaterial to our previously issued financial statements. However, we concluded that the cumulative correction of these misstatements would have had a material effect on our current year consolidated financial statements. Accordingly, we have revised our previously issued annual and interim consolidated financial statements for 2015 and 2016 and the first quarter of 2017. Certain of the corrections discussed above affected periods prior to fiscal year 2015, and this effect was reflected as a cumulative, net of tax adjustment to reduce retained earnings as of January 1, 2015 by $87 million. Amounts throughout this filing have been adjusted to incorporate the revised amounts, where applicable.

Refer to Note 2 - Correction of Fuji Xerox Misstatement in Prior Period Financial Statements in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding this correction.

Reverse Stock Split

On May 23, 2017, the Board of Directors authorized and shareholders approved a reverse stock split of outstanding Xerox common stock at a ratio of one-for-four shares, together with the proportionate reduction in the authorized shares of its common stock from 1,750,000,000 shares to 437,500,000 shares. The reverse stock split became effective on June 14, 2017.

Refer to Note 1 - Basis of Presentation and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding the reverse stock split.

Segment Changes

Following the separation of the BPO business, we realigned our operations to better manage the business and serve our customers and the markets in which we operate. In 2017 we transitioned to a geographic focus and are primarily organized from a sales perspective on the basis of “go-to-market” sales channels. These sales channels are structured to serve a range of customers for our products and services. As a result of this transition and change in structure, we concluded that we have one operating and reportable segment - the design, development and sale of document management systems and solutions. Our chief executive officer was identified as the chief operating decision maker (“CODM”). All of the company’s activities are interrelated, and each activity is dependent upon and supportive of the other, including product development, supply chain and back-office support services. In addition, all significant operating decisions, by management and the Board, are largely based upon an analysis of Xerox on a total Company basis, including assessments related to the company’s incentive compensation plans.

Refer to Note 3 - Segment and Geographic Area Reporting in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information.

Separation Update

On December 31, 2016, Xerox Corporation completed the separation of its BPO business from its Document Technology and Document Outsourcing (DT/DO) business (the “Separation”). The Separation was accomplished through the transfer of the BPO business into a new legal entity, Conduent Incorporated ("Conduent"), and then distributing one hundred percent (100%) of the outstanding common stock of Conduent to Xerox Corporation stockholders (the “Distribution”). As a result of the Separation and Distribution, the BPO business is presented as a discontinued operation and, as such, has been excluded from continuing operations for all periods presented.

Refer to Note 5 - Divestitures in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding the Separation.

Financial Overview

During 2017 the Company focused on delivering on its commitments established post-separation.

Total revenue of $10.3 billion in 2017 declined 4.7% from the prior year, with no impact from currency. The revenue decline reflects a 6.9% decline in equipment sales, with a 0.3-percentage point positive impact from currency and a 4.0% decline in post sale revenue with a 0.1-percentage point negative impact from currency. While equipment revenues improved in the fourth quarter 2017, the full-year decline was primarily driven by the impact of transitioning to our ConnectKey portfolio and ongoing black-and-white revenue declines that reflected overall market trends and unfavorable mix. The decline in post sale revenue was largely due to lower maintenance service revenues, supply sales and financing revenues, reflecting lower print volumes and lower equipment sales in prior periods.

2017 Net Income from continuing operations attributable to Xerox was $192 million and included after-tax costs of $723 million related to the amortization of intangible assets, restructuring and related costs, non-service retirement-related costs, and other discrete adjustments including the $400 million impact of implementing the Tax Act resulting in adjusted ¹ net income from continuing operations of $915 million. Net income from continuing operations attributable to Xerox for 2016 was $622 million and included after-tax costs of $305 million related to the amortization of intangible assets, restructuring and related costs and non-service retirement-related costs, resulting in adjusted ¹ net income of $927 million. The decrease in net income from continuing operations attributable to Xerox was primarily due to the $400 million impact from the Tax Act. Both net income amounts in 2017 - reported and adjusted ¹ - as compared to 2016 were also impacted by lower revenues, which were offset by cost savings from our Strategic Transformation program and lower interest expense, and a higher tax expense in 2017 before the impacts of the Tax Act.

Operating cash flow from continuing operations was $122 million in 2017 as compared to $1,018 million in 2016 . The decrease is primarily due to higher pension contributions of $658 million, which reflect an incremental $500 million contribution to our U.S. defined benefit pension plans that was funded through a $1.0 billion Senior Note offering and an additional contribution of approximately $105 million (GBP 80 million) to our U.K. Pension Plan for salaried employees. The U.K. contribution was funded through the cash received from an investment associated with our 1997 sale of The Resolution Group (TRG), a discontinued insurance business, and reported in investing cash flows. The decrease is also due to the one-time impact of approximately $350 million from the termination of certain accounts receivable sales programs in the fourth quarter of 2017. Cash used in investing activities of continuing operations of $31 million decreased $115 million as compared to 2016 primarily due to the cash receipt of $127 million from the TRG investment previously noted. Cash used in financing activities was $985 million in 2017 as compared to cash provided by financing activities of $584 million in 2016. The increase in the use of cash primarily reflects payments of $1.5 billion on Senior Notes, net payments of $326 million on the tender and exchange of certain Senior Notes and dividend payments of $291 million, partially offset by proceeds from the issuance of $1.0 billion of Senior Notes and $161 million from the final cash adjustment with Conduent.

2018 Outlook

We expect total revenues to decline in 2018 in the 2% to 4% range, excluding the impact of currency. At January 2018 exchange rates, we expect translation currency to have about a 1.4-percentage point positive impact on total revenues in 2018 , reflecting the weakening of the U.S. dollar against our major foreign currencies as compared to prior year. Reported earnings should improve in 2018 due to the inclusion of the $400 million charge in 2017 related to the enactment of the Tax Act. In addition, both reported and adjusted ¹ earnings are expected to reflect the continued benefits of cost savings and productivity improvements from our Strategic Transformation program, which are expected to offset the projected decline in revenues.

We expect 2018 operating cash flows from continuing operations to be between $900 and $1,100 million and capital expenditures to be approximately $150 million.

Our capital allocation plan for 2018 includes the following:

The 2018 outlook discussed above does not include any impacts associated with the proposed transaction to combine Xerox and Fuji Xerox.

Currency Impact

To understand the trends in the business, we believe that it is helpful to analyze the impact of changes in the translation of foreign currencies into U.S. Dollars on revenue and expenses. We refer to this analysis as "constant currency", “currency impact” or “the impact from currency.” This impact is calculated by translating current period activity in local currency using the comparable prior year period's currency translation rate. This impact is calculated for all countries where the functional currency is the local country currency. We do not hedge the translation effect of revenues or expenses denominated in currencies where the local currency is the functional currency. Management believes the constant currency measure provides investors an additional perspective on revenue trends. Currency impact can be determined as the difference between actual growth rates and constant currency growth rates.

Approximately 40% of our consolidated revenues are derived from operations outside of the United States where the U.S. Dollar is normally not the functional currency. As a result, the foreign currency translation had no impact on revenue in 2017 and 1.8-percentage point negative impact on revenue in 2016 .

Application of Critical Accounting Policies

In preparing our Consolidated Financial Statements and accounting for the underlying transactions and balances, we apply various accounting policies. Senior management has discussed the development and selection of the critical accounting policies, estimates and related disclosures included herein with the Audit Committee of the Board of Directors. We consider the policies discussed below as critical to understanding our Consolidated Financial Statements, as their application places the most significant demands on management's judgment, since financial reporting results rely on estimates of the effects of matters that are inherently uncertain. In instances where different estimates could have reasonably been used, we disclosed the impact of these different estimates on our operations. In certain instances, such as revenue recognition for leases, the accounting rules are prescriptive; therefore, it would not have been possible to reasonably use different estimates. Changes in assumptions and estimates are reflected in the period in which they occur. The impact of such changes could be material to our results of operations and financial condition in any quarterly or annual period.

Specific risks associated with these critical accounting policies are discussed throughout the MD&A, where such policies affect our reported and expected financial results. For a detailed discussion of the application of these and other accounting policies, refer to Note 1 - Basis of Presentation and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies in the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Revenue Recognition

Application of the various accounting principles in GAAP related to the measurement and recognition of revenue requires us to make judgments and estimates. Complex arrangements with nonstandard terms and conditions may require significant contract interpretation to determine the appropriate accounting. Refer to Note 1 - Basis of Presentation and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies - Revenue Recognition, in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding our revenue recognition policies . Specifically, the revenue related to the following areas involves significant judgments and estimates:

Bundled Lease Arrangements : We sell our equipment under bundled lease arrangements, which typically include the equipment, service, supplies and a financing component for which the customer pays a single negotiated monthly fixed price for all elements over the contractual lease term. Sales made under bundled lease arrangements comprise approximately 41% of our equipment sales revenue. Recognizing revenues under these arrangements requires us to allocate the total consideration received to the lease and non-lease deliverables included in the bundled arrangement, based upon the estimated fair values of each element.

Sales to Distributors and Resellers : We utilize distributors and resellers to sell many of our technology products, supplies and services to end-user customers. Sales to distributors and resellers are generally recognized as revenue when products are sold to such distributors and resellers. Distributors and resellers participate in various rebate, price-protection, cooperative marketing and other programs, and we record provisions and allowances for these programs as a reduction to revenue when the sales occur. Similarly, we also record estimates for sales returns and other discounts and allowances when the sales occur. We consider various factors, including a review of specific transactions and programs, historical experience and market and economic conditions when calculating these provisions and allowances. Approximately 17% of our total revenues are sales of equipment and supplies to distributors and resellers, and provisions and allowances recorded on these sales are approximately 22% of the associated gross revenues.

Allowance for Doubtful Accounts and Credit Losses

We continuously monitor collections and payments from our customers and maintain a provision for estimated credit losses based upon our historical experience adjusted for current conditions. We recorded bad debt provisions of $33 million, $37 million and $49 million in Selling, Administrative and General Expenses (SAG) expenses in our Consolidated Statements of Income (Loss) for the years ended December 31, 2017 , 2016 and 2015 , respectively.

Bad debt provisions declined in 2017 primarily as a result of lower revenues as well as continued strong credit policies. Reserves, as a percentage of trade and finance receivables, were 3.2% at December 31, 2017 , as compared to 3.6% and 3.7% at December 31, 2016 and 2015 , respectively. We continue to assess our receivable portfolio in light of the current economic environment and its impact on our estimation of the adequacy of the allowance for doubtful accounts.

As discussed above, we estimated our provision for doubtful accounts based on historical experience and customer-specific collection issues. This methodology was consistently applied for all periods presented. During the three year period ended December 31, 2017 , our reserve for doubtful accounts ranged from 3.2% to 3.7% of gross

receivables. Holding all assumptions constant, a 0.5-percentage point increase or decrease in the reserve from the December 31, 2017 rate of 3.2% would change the 2017 provision by approximately $26 million.

Refer to Note 6 - Accounts Receivables, Net and Note 7 - Finance Receivables, Net in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding our allowance for doubtful accounts.

Pension Plan Assumptions

We sponsor defined benefit pension plans in various forms in several countries covering employees who meet eligibility requirements. Over the past several years, where legally possible, we have amended our major defined benefit pension plans to freeze current benefits and eliminate benefits accruals for future service, including our primary U.S. defined benefit plan for salaried employees, the Canadian Salary Pension Plan and the U.K. Final Salary Pension Plan. The freeze of current benefits is the primary driver of the reduction in pension service costs since 2012. In certain Non-U.S. plans we are required to continue to consider salary increases and inflation in determining the benefit obligation related to prior service. The Netherlands defined benefit pension plan has also been amended to reflect the Company's ability to reduce the indexation of future pension benefits within the plan in scenarios when the returns on plan assets are insufficient to cover that indexation.

Several statistical and other factors that attempt to anticipate future events are used in calculating the expense, liability and asset values related to our defined benefit pension plans. These factors include assumptions we make about the expected return on plan assets, discount rate, lump-sum settlement rates, the rate of future compensation increases and mortality. Differences between these assumptions and actual experiences are reported as net actuarial gains and losses and are subject to amortization to net periodic benefit cost over future periods.

Cumulative net actuarial losses for our defined benefit pension plans of $2.7 billion as of December 31, 2017 decreased by $95 million from December 31, 2016 , primarily due to actual plan asset returns being more than expected returns in 2017, as well as the recognition of actuarial losses through amortization and U.S. settlement losses. These impacts were partially offset by currency and lower discount rates in 2017 as compared to 2016. The total actuarial loss at December 31, 2017 is subject to offsetting gains or losses in the future due to changes in actuarial assumptions and will be recognized in future periods through amortization or settlement losses.

We used a consolidated weighted average expected rate of return on plan assets of 5.0% for 2017 , 5.8% for 2016 and 6.0% for 2015 , on a worldwide basis. During 2017 , the actual return on plan assets was $834 million as compared to an expected return of $448 million, with the difference largely due to positive returns in the equity markets in 2017. When estimating the 2018 expected rate of return, in addition to assessing recent performance, we considered the historical returns earned on plan assets, the rates of return expected in the future, particularly in light of current economic conditions, and our investment strategy and asset mix with respect to the plans' funds. The weighted average expected rate of return on plan assets we will use in 2018 is 4.5%. The decline in the 2018 rate primarily reflects an increased investment allocation to fixed income securities as we reposition our investment portfolios in light of the improved funding status and the freeze of plan benefits for our major qualified plans. As the qualified pension plans reach set funded status milestones, the assets will be continue to be rebalanced to shift more assets from equity to fixed income securities.

Another significant assumption affecting our defined benefit pension obligations and the net periodic benefit cost is the rate that we use to discount our future anticipated benefit obligations. In the U.S. and the U.K., which comprise approximately 75% of our projected benefit obligation, we consider the Moody's Aa Corporate Bond Index and the International Index Company's iBoxx Sterling Corporate AA Cash Bond Index, respectively, in the determination of the appropriate discount rate assumptions. The consolidated weighted average discount rate we used to measure our pension obligations as of December 31, 2017 and to calculate our 2018 expense was 2.8%; the rate used to calculate our obligations as of December 31, 2016 and our 2017 expense was 3.1%. The weighted average discount rate we used to measure our retiree health obligation as of December 31, 2017 and to calculate our 2018 expense was 3.5%; the rate used to calculate our obligation at December 31, 2016 and our 2017 expense was 3.9%.

Holding all other assumptions constant, the following table summarizes the estimated impacts of a 0.25% change in the discount rate and a 0.25% change in the expected return on plan assets:

		Discount Rate								Expected Return
(in millions)		0.25% Increase				0.25% Decrease				0.25% Increase				0.25% Decrease
Increase/(Decrease)
2018 Projected net periodic pension cost		$	(30	)		$	35			$	(20	)		$	20
Projected benefit obligation as of December 31, 2017		(440		)		490				N/A				N/A

One of the most significant and volatile elements of our net periodic defined benefit pension plan expense is settlement losses. Our primary domestic plans allow participants the option of settling their vested benefits through the receipt of a lump-sum payment. We recognize the losses associated with these settlements immediately upon the settlement of the vested benefits. Settlement accounting requires us to recognize a pro rata portion of the aggregate unamortized net actuarial losses upon settlement. As noted above, cumulative unamortized net actuarial losses were $2.7 billion at December 31, 2017 , of which the U.S. primary domestic plans, with a lump-sum feature, represented approximately $1,035 million. The pro rata factor is computed as the percentage reduction in the projected benefit obligation due to the settlement of a participant ' s vested benefit. Settlement accounting is only applied when the event of settlement occurs - i.e. the lump-sum payment is made. Since settlement is dependent on an employee's decision and election, the level of settlements and the associated losses can fluctuate significantly from period to period. During the three years ended December 31, 2017 , U.S. plan settlements were $550 million, $229 million and $340 million, respectively, and the associated settlement losses on those plan settlements were $133 million, $65 million and $88 million, respectively. In 2018, on average, we estimate that approximately $100 million of plan settlements will result in settlement losses of approximately $25 million.

The following is a summary of our benefit plan costs for the three years ended December 31, 2017 as well as estimated amounts for 2018 :

		Estimated				Actual
(in millions)		2018				2017				2016				2015
Defined benefit pension plans (1)		$	13			$	61			$	62			$	53
U.S. settlement losses		127				133				65				88
Defined contribution plans		54				54				61				66
Retiree health benefit plans (2)		26				30				35				24
U.S. Retiree health curtailment gain		—				—				—				(22		)
Total Benefit Plan Expense		$	220			$	278			$	223			$	209

_____________

Our estimated 2018 defined benefit pension plan cost is expected to be approximately $55 million lower than 2017 , primarily driven by lower projected expense for our U.K. Final Salary Pension Plan, which is largely due to actuarial gains in 2017 as well as an improved funding status.

The following is a summary of our expected benefit plan funding for the three years ended December 31, 2017 as well as estimated amounts for 2018 :

		Estimated				Actual
(in millions)		2018				2017				2016				2015
U.S. Defined benefit pension plans		$	76			$	675			$	24			$	173
Non-U.S. Defined benefit pension plans		116				161				154				128
Defined contribution plans		54				54				61				66
Retiree health benefit plans		62				64				61				63
Total Benefit Plan Funding		$	308			$	954			$	300			$	430

 

The increase in contributions to our U.S. defined benefit plans in 2017 was largely due to $650 million of contributions to our domestic tax-qualified defined benefit plans, comprised of $15 million required to meet minimum funding requirements and $635 million of additional voluntary contributions. The original estimate of 2017 voluntary contributions of $135 million was increased by $500 million as a result of funding provided from a Senior Note offering in 2017.

Refer to Note 17 - Employee Benefit Plans in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding defined benefit pension plan assumptions, expense and funding.

Income Taxes

We are subject to income taxes in the U.S. and numerous foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgments are required in determining the consolidated provision for income taxes. Our provision is based on nonrecurring events as well as recurring factors, including the taxation of foreign income. In addition, our provision will change based on discrete or other nonrecurring events such as audit settlements, tax law changes, changes in valuation allowances, etc., that may not be predictable.

We record the estimated future tax effects of temporary differences between the tax bases of assets and liabilities and amounts reported in our Consolidated Balance Sheets, as well as operating loss and tax credit carryforwards. We follow very specific and detailed guidelines in each tax jurisdiction regarding the recoverability of any tax assets recorded in our Consolidated Balance Sheets and provide valuation allowances as required. We regularly review our deferred tax assets for recoverability considering historical profitability, projected future taxable income, the expected timing of the reversals of existing temporary differences and tax planning strategies. Increases (decreases) to our valuation allowance, through income tax expense, were $6 million, $(8) million and $(15) million for the years ended December 31, 2017 , 2016 and 2015 , respectively. There were other increases (decreases) to our valuation allowance, including the effects of currency, of $13 million, $41 million and $(110) million for the years ended December 31, 2017 , 2016 and 2015 , respectively. These did not affect income tax expense in total as there was a corresponding adjustment to deferred tax assets or other comprehensive income.

The following is a summary of gross deferred tax assets and the related valuation allowances for the three years ended December 31, 2017 :

		Year Ended December 31,
(in millions)		2017				2016				2015
Gross deferred tax assets		$	2,051			$	2,730			$	2,743
Valuation allowance		(435		)		(416		)		(383		)
Net deferred tax assets		$	1,616			$	2,314			$	2,360

We are subject to ongoing tax examinations and assessments in various jurisdictions. Accordingly, we may incur additional tax expense based upon our assessment of the more-likely-than-not outcomes of such matters. In addition, when applicable, we adjust the previously recorded tax expense to reflect examination results. Our ongoing assessments of the more-likely-than-not outcomes of the examinations and related tax positions require judgment and can materially increase or decrease our effective tax rate, as well as impact our operating results. Unrecognized tax benefits were $125 million, $165 million and $222 million at December 31, 2017 , 2016 and 2015 , respectively.

On December 22, 2017, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “Tax Act”) was enacted in the U.S. The Tax Act significantly revises the U.S. corporate income tax system by, among other things, lowering the U.S. statutory corporate income tax rate from 35% to 21% and implementing a territorial tax system that includes a transition tax on deemed repatriated earnings of foreign subsidiaries. During the fourth quarter 2017, we recorded an estimated non-cash provisional charge of $400 million reflecting the impact associated with the provisions of the Tax Act based on currently available information.

Refer to Note 18 - Income and Other Taxes in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding deferred income taxes, unrecognized tax benefits and the estimated impacts of the Tax Act.

Business Combinations and Goodwill

We allocate the fair value of purchase consideration to tangible assets, liabilities assumed, and intangible assets acquired based on their estimated fair values. The excess of the fair value of purchase consideration over the fair values of these identifiable assets and liabilities is allocated to goodwill. The allocation of the purchase consideration requires management to make significant estimates and assumptions, especially with respect to intangible assets. These estimates can include, but are not limited to, future expected cash flows of acquired customers, acquired technology, and trade names from a market participant perspective, and estimates of useful lives, and discount rates. Management’s estimates of fair value are based upon assumptions believed to be reasonable and when appropriate, include assistance from independent third-party valuation firms. During the measurement period, which is up to one year from the acquisition date, we may record adjustments to the assets acquired and liabilities assumed, with the corresponding offset to goodwill. Upon the conclusion of the measurement period, any subsequent adjustments are recorded to earnings. Refer to Note 4 - Acquisitions in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding the allocation of the purchase price consideration for our acquisitions.

Our goodwill balance was $3.9 billion at December 31, 2017. We assess goodwill for impairment at least annually during the fourth quarter and whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value may not be recoverable. Events or circumstances that might indicate an interim evaluation is warranted include, among other things, unexpected adverse business conditions, macro and company specific economic factors, supply costs, unanticipated competitive activities and acts by governments and courts. Application of the annual goodwill impairment test requires judgment regarding the identification of reporting units. Consistent with the determination that we had one operating segment, we determined that there is one reporting unit and tested goodwill for

impairment at the entity level. Consistent with prior years, we elected to utilize a quantitative assessment of the recoverability of our goodwill balance.

In our quantitative test, we estimate the fair value of the entity by weighting the results from the income approach (discounted cash flow methodology) and market approach. These valuation approaches require significant judgment and consider a number of factors that include, but are not limited to, expected future cash flows, growth rates and discount rates, and comparable multiples from publicly traded companies in our industry. In addition, these approaches require us to make certain assumptions and estimates regarding the current economic environment, industry factors and the future profitability of our businesses. When performing our discounted cash flow analysis, we incorporate the use of projected financial information and a discount rate that is developed using market participant-based assumptions. The cash flow projections are based on three-year financial forecasts developed by management that include revenue and expense projections, capital spending trends and investment in working capital to support anticipated revenue growth or other changes in the business and which are consistent with expected guidance for the Company. The selected discount rate considers the risk and nature of the entity's cash flows and an appropriate capital structure and rates of return that market participants would require to invest their capital.

We believe these assumptions are appropriate and reflect our current expectations as well as our forecasted long-term business model, giving appropriate consideration to our historical results as well as the current economic environment and markets that we serve. The discount rate applied to our projected cash flows was approximately 8.0%, which we considered reasonable based on the estimated capital costs of applicable market participants and an appropriate company-specific risk premium. Although our estimate of the fair value of the entity was in excess of our market capitalization, we believe the difference is reasonable when a market-based control premium is taken into consideration. However, even in the case no market-based control premium was considered, no impairment would be indicated.

Our impairment assessment methodology includes the use of outside valuation experts and the inclusion of factors and assumptions related to third-party market participants. When performing our market approach, we rely specifically on the guideline public company method. Our guideline public company method incorporates revenues and earnings multiples from publicly traded companies with operations and other characteristics similar to our entity. The selected multiples consider entity's relative growth, profitability, size and risk relative to the selected publicly traded companies.

After completing our annual impairment review in the fourth quarter of 2017, we concluded that goodwill was not impaired and we had an excess of fair value over carrying value of significantly more than 20%. Subsequent to our fourth quarter impairment test, we did not identify any indicators of potential impairment that required an update to the annual impairment test.

Refer to Note 11 - Goodwill and Intangible Assets, Net in the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information regarding goodwill.