Overview

We are a leading global manufacturer and supplier of steel pipe products and related services for the world’s energy industry and for other industrial applications. Our customers include most of the world’s leading oil and gas companies as well as engineering companies engaged in constructing oil and gas gathering, transportation, processing and power generation facilities. Our principal products include casing, tubing, line pipe, and mechanical and structural pipes.

We operate an integrated worldwide network of steel pipe manufacturing, research, finishing and service facilities with industrial operations in the Americas, Europe, Asia and Africa and a direct presence in most major oil and gas markets.

Our mission is to deliver value to our customers through product development, manufacturing excellence, and supply chain management. We seek to minimize risk for our customers and help them reduce costs, increase flexibility and improve time-to-market. Our employees around the world are committed to continuous improvement by sharing knowledge across a single global organization.

The Company

Our holding company’s legal and commercial name is Tenaris S.A. The Company was established as a société anonyme organized under the laws of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg on December 17, 2001. The Company’s registered office is located at 29 Avenue de la Porte-Neuve, 3rd Floor, L-2227, Luxembourg, telephone (352) 2647-8978. Its agent for U.S. federal securities law purposes is Tenaris Global Services (U.S.A.) Corporation, located at 2200 West Loop South, Suite 800, Houston, TX 77027.

Tenaris

Tenaris began with the formation of Siderca S.A.I.C. (“Siderca”), the sole Argentine producer of seamless steel pipe products, by San Faustin’s predecessor in Argentina in 1948. We acquired Siat S.A., an Argentine welded steel pipe manufacturer, in 1986. We grew organically in Argentina and then, in the early 1990s, began to evolve beyond this initial base into a global business through a series of strategic investments. As of the date of this annual report, our investments include controlling or strategic interests in:

In addition, we have established a global network of pipe finishing, distribution and service facilities with a direct presence in most major oil and gas markets and a global network of research and development centers.

For information on Tenaris’s principal capital expenditures and divestitures, see Item 4.B. “Information on the Company – Business Overview – Capital Expenditure Program”.

Our business strategy is to consolidate our position as a leading global supplier of integrated product and service solutions to the energy and other industries by:

Pursuing strategic investment opportunities and alliances

We have a solid record of growth through strategic investments and acquisitions. We pursue selective strategic investments and acquisitions as a means to expand our operations and presence in select markets, enhance our global competitive position and capitalize on potential operational synergies. Our track record on companies’ acquisitions is described above (see “History and Development of the Company – Tenaris”). In addition:

Expanding our range of products

We have developed an extensive range of high-value products suitable for most of our customers’ operations using our network of specialized research and testing facilities and by investing in our manufacturing facilities. As our customers expand their operations, we seek to supply high-value products that reduce costs and enable them to operate safely in challenging environments, including for complex offshore and unconventional operations.

Enhancing our offer of technical and pipe management services - Rig Direct® - and extending their global deployment

We continue to enhance our offer of technical and pipe management services, Rig Direct® services, and extend their deployment worldwide. For many years, we have provided these services, providing technical advice and assistance on the selection of materials and their use in the field, managing customer inventories and directly supplying pipes to their rigs on a just-in-time basis in markets like Mexico and Argentina. In response to changes in market conditions and the increased focus of customers on reducing costs and improving the efficiency of their operations, the deployment of our Rig Direct® services was extended throughout North America and in other markets around the world (e.g. North Sea, Romania and Thailand). Through the provision of Rig Direct® services, we seek to enable our customers, to optimize their operations, reduce costs and to concentrate on their core businesses, providing an integrated product and service value proposition, increasing supply chain efficiency. They are also intended to differentiate us from our competitors and further strengthen our relationships with our customers worldwide through long-term agreements.

Securing inputs for our manufacturing operations

We seek to secure our existing sources of raw material and energy inputs, and to gain access to new sources of low-cost inputs which can help us maintain or reduce the cost of manufacturing our core products over the long term. We aim to achieve a vertically integrated value chain for our production. To this end, we purchase most of our supplies through Exiros, a specialized procurement company whose ownership we share with Ternium. Exiros offers us integral procurement solutions, supplier sourcing activities; category organized purchasing; suppliers’ performance administration; and inventory management. Moreover, in February 2014, we entered into an agreement with our affiliates Ternium and Tecpetrol International S.A. (“Tecpetrol”) (a wholly-owned subsidiary of San Faustin, the controlling shareholder of both Tenaris and Ternium) to build a natural gas-fired combined cycle electric power plant in Mexico for the supply of Tenaris’s and Ternium’s respective Mexican industrial facilities. For more information on the power plant, see note 11 c) “Investments in non-consolidated companies – Techgen S.A. de C.V.” to our audited consolidated financial statements included in this annual report. For more information on the Company’s commitments under the power plant, see item 5.E. “Operating and Financial Review and Prospects - Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements”.

Our Competitive Strengths

We believe our main competitive strengths include:

Business Segments

Tenaris has one major business segment, “Tubes”, which is also the reportable operating segment.

The Tubes segment includes the production and sale of both seamless and welded steel tubular products and related services mainly for the oil and gas industry, particularly OCTG used in drilling operations, and for other industrial applications with production processes that consist in the transformation of steel into tubular products. Business activities included in this segment are mainly dependent on the oil and gas industry worldwide, as this industry is a major consumer of steel pipe products, particularly OCTG used in drilling activities. Demand for steel pipe products from the oil and gas industry has historically been volatile and depends primarily upon the number of oil and natural gas wells being drilled, completed and reworked, and the depth and drilling conditions of these wells. Sales are generally made to end users, with exports being done through a centrally managed global distribution network and domestic sales made through local subsidiaries. Corporate general and administrative expenses have been allocated to the Tubes segment.

The “Others” segment include all other business activities and operating segments that are not required to be separately reported, including the production and selling of sucker rods, industrial equipment, coiled tubing, utility conduits for buildings, and the sale of energy and raw materials that exceed internal requirements.

For more information on our business segments, see “II C. Accounting Policies – Segment information” to our audited consolidated financial statements included in this annual report.

Our Products

Our principal finished products are seamless and welded steel casing and tubing, line pipe and various other mechanical and structural steel pipes for different uses. Casing and tubing are also known as oil country tubular goods (“OCTG”). We manufacture our steel pipe products in a wide range of specifications, which vary in diameter, length, thickness, finishing, steel grades, coating, threading and coupling. For more complex applications, including high pressure and high temperature applications, seamless steel pipes are usually specified and, for some standard applications, welded steel pipes can also be used.

Casing . Steel casing is used to sustain the walls of oil and gas wells during and after drilling.

Tubing . Steel tubing is used to conduct crude oil and natural gas to the surface after drilling has been completed.

Line pipe . Steel line pipe is used to transport crude oil and natural gas from wells to refineries, storage tanks and loading and distribution centers.

Mechanical and structural pipes . Mechanical and structural pipes are used by general industry for various applications, including the transportation of other forms of gas and liquids under high pressure.

Cold-drawn pipe . The cold-drawing process permits the production of pipes with the diameter and wall thickness required for use in boilers, superheaters, condensers, heat exchangers, automobile production and several other industrial applications.

Premium joints and couplings . Premium joints and couplings are specially designed connections used to join lengths of steel casing and tubing for use in high temperature or high pressure environments. A significant portion of our steel casing and tubing products are supplied with premium joints and couplings. We own an extensive range of premium connections, and following the integration of the premium connections business of Hydril, we have marketed our premium connection products under the “TenarisHydril” brand name. In addition, we hold licensing rights to manufacture and sell the Atlas Bradford range of premium connections outside the United States.

Coiled tubing. Coiled tubing is used for oil and gas drilling and well workovers and for subsea pipelines.

Other products. We also manufacture sucker rods used in oil extraction activities and industrial equipment of various specifications and diverse applications, including liquid and gas storage equipment. In addition, we sell energy and raw materials that exceed our internal requirements.

Production Process and Facilities

We operate relatively low-cost production facilities, which we believe is the result of:

Our seamless pipes production facilities are located in North and South America, Europe and Asia and our welded pipes production facilities are located in North and South America and from January 2019 in Saudi Arabia. In addition, we have tubular accessories facilities, such as sucker rods, in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Romania, and the United States. We produce couplings in Argentina, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico and Romania, and pipe fittings in Mexico. In addition to our pipe threading and finishing facilities at our integrated pipe production facilities, we also have pipe threading facilities for steel pipes manufactured in accordance with the specifications of the American Petroleum Institute (“API”), and premium joints in the United States, Canada, China, Denmark, Ecuador, Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Nigeria, the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia.

The following table shows our aggregate installed production capacity of seamless and welded steel pipes and steel bars at the dates indicated as well as the aggregate actual production volumes for the periods indicated. The figures for effective annual capacity are based on our estimates of effective annual production capacity under present conditions.

Capacity of seamless tubes in 2018 increased in respect to 2017 due to the completion of Tenaris Bay City, our state-of-the-art pipe mill in Bay City, Texas.

Production Facilities – Tubes

North America

In North America, we have a fully integrated seamless pipe manufacturing facility, a threading plant and a pipe fittings facility in Mexico, a seamless pipe rolling mill, three welded pipe manufacturing facilities and three threading plants in the United States, and a seamless pipe rolling mill, a welded pipe manufacturing facility and one threading plant in Canada.

Mexico

In Mexico, our fully integrated seamless pipe manufacturing facility is located near the major exploration and drilling operations of Petróleos Mexicanos S.A. de C.V. (“Pemex”), about 13 kilometers from the port of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico. Situated on an area of 650 hectares, the plant includes two state-of-the-art seamless pipe mills and has an installed annual production capacity of approximately 1,230,000 tons of seamless steel pipes (with an outside diameter range of 2 to 20 inches) and 1,150,000 tons of steel bars. The plant is served by two highways and a railroad and is close to the port of Veracruz, which reduces transportation costs and facilitates product shipments to export markets.

The Veracruz facility comprises:

The major operational units at the Veracruz facility and the corresponding effective annual production capacity (in thousands of tons per year, except for the auto components facility, which is in millions of parts) as of December 31, 2018, are as follows:

In Veracruz, located near our fully integrated seamless pipe manufacturing facility, we have a threading plant, which produces premium connections and accessories.

In addition to the Veracruz facilities, we operate a manufacturing facility near Monterrey in the state of Nuevo León, Mexico, for the production of weldable pipe fittings. This facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 15,000 tons.

United States

In the United States we have the following production facilities:

Bay City, Texas: Our 1.2 million square foot greenfield seamless mill was inaugurated in December 2017. The facility is the result of an investment of $1.8 billion and includes a state-of-the-art rolling mill with a capacity of approximately 600,000 tons per year (with an outside diameter range of 4 ½ to 9 ⁵ / ₈ inches), as well as finishing and heat treatment lines and logistics center.

The Bay City facility comprises:

Hickman, Arkansas : This facility, which is our main U.S. welded production facility and covers an area of 78 hectares, processes steel coils to produce electric resistance welded (“ERW”), OCTG and line pipe with an outside diameter range from 2  ³ ⁄ ₈ to 16 inches and has an annual production capacity of approximately 900,000 tons. It includes:

Conroe, Texas : A plant located on an area of 47 hectares which processes steel coils to produce ERW OCTG, with an outside diameter range of 4  ¹ ⁄ ₂ to 8  ⁵ ⁄ ₈ inches and has an annual production capacity of approximately 250,000 tons. The facility includes one mill, one heat treatment line and one finishing line. In October 2018, Tenaris restarted operations at this mill and is currently heat treating and finishing seamless pipes coming mostly from Tenaris Bay City, after a temporary suspension, that occurred in 2015 due to the record levels of unfairly traded imports of OCTG from South Korea and the sharp decline in the price of oil and consequential reduction in drilling activity.

Counce, Tennessee : A plant located on an area of 54 hectares which processes steel coils to produce line pipe with an outside diameter range of 4  ¹ ⁄ ₂ to 8  ⁵ ⁄ ₈ inches and has an annual production capacity of approximately 90,000 tons. The plant has one mill and a finishing line capable of producing line pipe products. Currently, for efficiency reasons, the plant is not operational and these products are being produced by our Hickman plant.

Additionally, we have the following threading facilities, which are mainly dedicated to the finishing of tubes with premium connections:

Canada

In Canada, we have a seamless steel pipe manufacturing facility located in Sault Ste. Marie, near the mouth of Lake Superior in the province of Ontario. The facility includes a retained mandrel mill, a stretch reducing mill and heat treatment and finishing facilities producing seamless pipe products with an outside diameter range of 3 ¹ / ₂ to 9  ⁷ ⁄ ₈ inches. The effective annual production capacity of the facility is approximately 300,000 tons. We use steel bars produced by Rio Tinto Fer et Titane, Inc., a Canadian producer of titanium dioxide and high purity iron, and by our integrated facilities in Romania, Italy, Mexico and Argentina.

We also own a welded steel pipe manufacturing facility located in Calgary, Alberta, which processes steel coils into ERW OCTG and line pipe with an outside diameter range of 2  ³ ⁄ ₈ to 12  ³ ⁄ ₄ inches. The facility includes a slitter, three welding lines and four threading lines. The effective annual production capacity of this plant is approximately 400,000 tons.

In addition, we have a threading facility in Nisku, Alberta, near the center of Western Canadian drilling area. The facility has ten computer numerical control (“CNC”), lathes dedicated to premium connections and accessories including related repairs.

South America

In South America, we have a fully integrated seamless pipe facility in Argentina. In addition, we have welded pipe manufacturing facilities in Argentina, Brazil and Colombia.

Argentina

Our principal manufacturing facility in South America is a fully integrated plant on the banks of the Paraná river near the town of Campana, approximately 80 kilometers from the City of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Situated on over 300 hectares, the plant includes a state-of-the-art seamless pipe facility and has an effective annual production capacity of approximately 900,000 tons of seamless steel pipe (with an outside diameter range of 1  ¹ ⁄ ₄ to 10  ³ ⁄ ₄ inches) and 1,300,000 tons of steel bars.

The Campana facility comprises:

In Argentina, up to the end of January 2019 we had a 160 megawatt power generation plant located at San Nicolás that reached the end of its useful life, which together with a smaller thermo-electric power generating plant located within the Campana facility, was sufficient to supply the requirements of our steelmaking facility at Campana. Currently, our energy requirements in Argentina are mainly satisfied from the local market.

The major operational units at the Campana facility and corresponding effective annual production capacity (in thousands of tons per year) as of December 31, 2018, are as follows:

In addition to our main integrated seamless pipe facility, we also have two welded pipe manufacturing facilities in Argentina. One is located at Valentín Alsina just south of the city of Buenos Aires. The facility includes ERW and submerged arc welding (“SAW”), rolling mills with one spiral line. The facility was originally opened in 1948 and processes steel coils and plates to produce welded steel pipes with an outside diameter range of 4  ¹ ⁄ ₂ to 80 inches, which are used for the conveying of fluids at low, medium and high pressure and for mechanical and structural purposes. The facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 350,000 tons. The other welded facility is located at Villa Constitución in the province of Santa Fe. The facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 80,000 tons of welded pipes with an outside diameter range of 1 to 8 inches.

Brazil

In Brazil, we have the Confab welded pipe manufacturing facility, located at Pindamonhangaba, 160 kilometers from the city of São Paulo. The facility includes an ERW rolling mill and a SAW rolling mill with one spiral line and one longitudinal line. The facility, which was originally opened in 1974, processes steel coils and plates to produce welded steel pipes with an outside diameter range from 5  ¹ ⁄ ₂ to 100 inches for various applications, including OCTG and line pipe for oil, petrochemical and gas applications. The facility also supplies anticorrosion pipe coating made of extruded polyethylene or polypropylene, external and internal fusion bonded epoxy and paint for internal pipe coating. The facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 500,000 tons.

Colombia and Ecuador

In Colombia we have Tubocaribe, a pipe manufacturing facility in Cartagena, on an area of 60 hectares, including a state-of-the-art finishing plant for seamless pipes. The total estimated annual finishing capacity is approximately 250,000 tons, with an estimated annual ERW production capacity of approximately 140,000 tons. The plant produces OCTG and line pipe products with an outside diameter range of 2  ³ ⁄ ₈ to 9  ⁵ ⁄ ₈ inches, having two ERW mills, one heat treatment line, one slotting line and three threading lines, including premium connections capacity. Inspection lines and materials testing laboratories complete the production facility. A 2 to 42 inches diameter multilayer coating facility complements our line pipe production facilities.

In addition, we have a coupling shop with fifty-four lathes, ten cutting machines, and two phosphatizing lines. Inspection and finishing lines complete this facility. The shop has an estimated annual production capacity of 2.3 million pieces, including API and premium threads.

In Ecuador we have a small threading and finishing service center in Machachi.

Europe

In Europe, we have several seamless pipe manufacturing facilities in Italy and one in Romania and premium connection threading facilities in Denmark and the United Kingdom.

Italy

Our principal manufacturing facility in Europe is an integrated plant located in the town of Dalmine in the industrial area of Bergamo, about 40 kilometers from Milan in northern Italy. Situated on an area of 150 hectares, the plant includes a state-of-the-art seamless pipe mill and has an annual production capacity of approximately 650,000 tons of seamless steel pipes and 935,000 tons of steel bars.

The Dalmine facility comprises:

The major operational units at the Dalmine facility and corresponding effective annual production capacity (in thousands of tons per year) as of December 31, 2018, are as follows:

The Dalmine facility manufactures seamless steel pipes with an outside diameter range of 146 to 711 mm (5.70 to 28.00 inches), mainly from carbon, low alloy and high alloy steels for diverse applications. The Dalmine facility also manufactures steel bars for processing at our facilities in Italy and elsewhere.

Our production facilities located in Italy have a collective annual production capacity of approximately 800,000 tons of seamless steel pipes. Aside from the main facility mentioned above, they include:

In addition to these facilities, we operate a manufacturing facility at Sabbio, which manufactures gas cylinders with an annual production capacity of approximately 14,000 tons or 270,000 pieces, and a large vessels plant inside the Dalmine facility, recently revamped, with a production capacity of around 5,000 pieces per year.

In order to reduce the cost of electrical energy at our operations in Dalmine, we constructed a gas-fired, combined heat and power station with a capacity of 120 megawatts at Dalmine. Our operations in Dalmine consume most of the power generated at the power station which is designed to have sufficient capacity to meet the electric power requirements of these operations at peak load. Excess power is sold to third-party consumers and heat is sold for district heating.

Romania

We have a seamless steel pipe manufacturing facility in Romania, located in the city of Zalau, near the Hungarian border, approximately 500 kilometers from Bucharest. The Silcotub facility includes a hot rolling mill and has an annual production capacity of approximately 210,000 tons of seamless steel tubes, of which 25,000 tons are cold drawn. The plant produces carbon and alloy steel tubes with an outside diameter range of 8 to 146 mm (0.314 to 5.74 inches). We also have a steelmaking facility in southern Romania, with an annual steelmaking capacity of 550,000 tons supplying steel bars for our European operations as well as to other rolling mills in our industrial system elsewhere. The combined Romanian facilities comprise:

United Kingdom

In Aberdeen, the United Kingdom, we have a premium connection threading, manufacturing and repair facility, which works as a hub to service our customers working in the North Sea region. The facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 20,000 pieces, with a production range of 2 ³ / ₈ ’’ to 18 ⁵ / ₈ ’’ (20” by the first quarter of 2019).

Denmark

We have a facility in Esbjerg, Denmark for the manufacturing of casing and tubing accessories and the provision of casing and tubing repairs, with a production range of 2 ³ / ₈ ’’ to 18 ⁵ / ₈ ’’ and production capacity of 4,200 ends per year.

Middle East and Africa

We have a threading facility for the production of premium joints and accessories in Saudi Arabia. The facility has an annual production capacity of 120,000 tons.

Additionally, we have a premium threading facility in Kazakhstan. The state-of-the-art facility has the capacity to produce 45,000 tons of OCTG annually for threading seamless pipes and gas-tight premium connections.

In Nigeria we have a facility dedicated to the production of premium joints and couplings located in Onne. This plant comprises a threading facility for both API and premium connections with an annual production capacity of approximately 40,000 tons, inspection facilities and a stockyard. In addition, in October 2011, we acquired 40% of the shares of Pipe Coaters, a leading company in the Nigerian pipe coating industry. Also, located in Onne, Pipe Coaters supplies a wide variety of products and services for the oil and gas industry, such as internal, anticorrosion, concrete and thermal insulation coatings for deepwater applications.

Asia Pacific

Our seamless pipe manufacturing facility in Asia, operated by NKKTubes, is located in Kawasaki, Japan, in the Keihin steel complex owned by JFE Holdings Inc. (“JFE”), the successor company of NKKTubes that resulted from the business combination of NKKTubes with Kawasaki Steel Corporation. The facility includes a floating mandrel mill, a plug mill and heat treatment and upsetting and threading facilities producing seamless steel pipe products with an outside diameter range of 1 to 17 inches. The effective annual production capacity of the facility is approximately 260,000 tons. The plant was operated by Nippon Kokan K. until its acquisition by NKKTubes in 2000. Steel bars and other essential inputs and services are supplied by JFE, which retains a 49% interest in NKKTubes through its subsidiary JFE Steel Corporation. The NKKTubes facility produces a wide range of carbon, alloy and stainless steel pipes for the local market and high value-added products for export markets.

We own a facility for the production of premium joints and couplings in Qingdao, on the east coast of China. The facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 40,000 tons of premium joints. Additionally, in 2016 we opened a components facility for processing pipes for use in airbags for automotives.

In addition, in Indonesia, we hold 89.17% of SPIJ, an Indonesian OCTG processing business with heat treatment, premium connection threading facilities, coupling shop and a quality-testing laboratory, including an ultrasonic testing machine, which has an annual processing capacity of approximately 120,000 tons. We also have a premium joints threading facility in the state of Batam, which we integrated to our operations following the acquisition of Hydril.

Production Facilities – Others

We have facilities for the manufacture of sucker rods in Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina, in Moreira Cesar, São Paulo, Brazil, in Veracruz, Mexico, in Campina, Romania and in Conroe, Texas, the United States. Our total annual manufacturing capacity of sucker rods is approximately 3.8 million units.

In Moreira Cesar, São Paulo, Brazil, we also have facilities for the manufacture of industrial equipment. In many cases, we also provide the assembly service of this equipment at the client’s site.

In Italy, we have the Piombino facility, which covers an area of approximately 67 hectares and comprises a hot dip galvanizing line and associated finishing facilities. Production is focused on finishing of small diameter seamless pipes for plumbing applications in the domestic market, such as residential water, gas transport and firefighting. The Piombino facility has an annual production capacity of approximately 100,000 tons.

In addition, we have specialized facilities in the Houston area producing coiled tubing and umbilical tubing:

Sales and Marketing

Net Sales

Our total net sales amounted to $7,659 million in 2018, compared to $5,289 million in 2017 and $4,294 million in 2016. For further information on our net sales see Item 5.A. “Operating and Financial Review and Prospects – Results of Operations”.

The following table shows our net sales by business segment for the periods indicated therein:

Tubes

The following table indicates, for our Tubes business segment, net sales by geographic region:

North America

Sales to customers in North America accounted for 48% of our sales of tubular products and services in 2018, compared to 48% in 2017 and 31% in 2016.

We have significant sales and production facilities in each of the United States, Canada and Mexico, where we provide customers with an integrated product and service offering based on local production capabilities supported by our global industrial system. In the past three years, we have extended our integrated product and service model, which we call Rig Direct®, throughout North America, and in late 2017, we started operations at our seamless pipe mill at Bay City, Texas, which is strategically located to serve the Eagle Ford and Permian regions. Under Rig Direct®, we manage the whole supply chain from the mill to the rig for customers under long-term agreements, integrating mill production with customer drilling programs, reducing overall inventory levels and simplifying operational processes. We first introduced the Rig Direct® model to Pemex in Mexico in 1994, and since then we have supplied them with pipes on a just-in-time basis. At the end of 2018, we supplied the majority of our U.S. and Canadian customers for OCTG products with Rig Direct® services.

Sales to our oil and gas customers in the United States and Canada are highly sensitive to oil prices and natural gas prices in that region. In the past few years, the drilling of productive shale gas and tight oil reserves, made possible by new drilling technology, has transformed drilling activity and oil and gas production in the United States and Canada. Following 25 years of declining production, U.S. crude oil production began to increase in 2009 and has risen significantly, from 5.6 million b/d in 2011 to 11.7 million b/d at the end of 2018. Production of natural gas liquids (“NGLs”) has also increased significantly in the past few years in North America. This rapid increase in production, however, contributed to an excess of supply in the global oil market in 2014 and a consequent collapse in the price of oil, as other producers, notably Saudi Arabia, were for a time unwilling to adjust their production levels to balance the market. More recently, a further rapid increase in production in 2018 led to a 40% fall in oil prices in the final quarter of the year, which have since partially recovered. Natural gas production has also increased in the United States in four of the last five years, and in 2017 the United States became a net exporter of natural gas for the first time. In Canada, there has been a similar shift towards drilling of shale gas and tight oil reserves. The drop in oil prices since the second half of 2014, however, led to a drastic reduction in drilling activity throughout North America until the second half of 2016 when activity began to recover in the United States and Canada based on sharply lower production costs and an improvement in the outlook for oil prices following the decision by OPEC and other producers to cut production levels to facilitate market supply and demand rebalancing and reduce accumulated excess inventories. In 2017 and 2018, drilling activity recovered and oil and gas production increased in the United States and Canada.

Demand for, and our sales of, OCTG products in the United States and Canada plummeted in 2015 and 2016, to less than a quarter of the high level reached in 2014, affected by high inventory levels as well as collapsing drilling activity. In 2017 and 2018, however, demand and sales recovered strongly as drilling activity increased and inventory levels returned to more normal levels.

During 2018, the U.S. government introduced Section 232 tariffs and quotas on the imports of steel products, including steel pipes, with the objective of strengthening domestic production capacity utilization and investment.

Our sales in the United States are also affected by the level of investment of oil and gas companies in exploration and production in offshore projects. The blow-out at the Macondo well in the Gulf of Mexico and the subsequent spillage of substantial quantities of oil resulted in a moratorium that halted drilling activity. The drilling moratorium was lifted in October 2010, when new regulations affecting offshore exploration and development activities were announced. Since then, drilling activity recovered but, with the 2014 fall in oil prices, drilling activity declined and remains at a low level.

Oil and gas drilling in Canada is subject to strong seasonality, with the peak drilling season in Western Canada being during the winter months when the ground is frozen. During the spring, as the ice melts, drilling activity is severely restricted by the difficulty of moving equipment in muddy terrain.

In Mexico, we have enjoyed a long and mutually beneficial relationship with Pemex, the Mexican state-owned oil company, and one of the world’s largest crude oil and condensates producers. In 1994, we began supplying Pemex with Rig Direct® services. In early 2018, we renewed our just in time agreement with Pemex for a further five-year period.

At the end of 2013, Mexico reformed its constitution to permit increased private and foreign investment in the energy industry. Under the reforms, foreign and private investors are allowed to participate in profit and production sharing contracts and licenses and Pemex has been transformed into a state-owned production company without its previous monopoly on production. A new regulatory framework has been developed and contracts with foreign and private investors are gradually being awarded.

Following the 2014 decline in oil prices, drilling activity in Mexico and demand for our OCTG products has plummeted as the financial condition of Pemex has deteriorated and the impact of investments from the energy reform process in Mexico has yet to take effect. Recently, drilling activity at Pemex has started to recover as the new Mexican government has increased funding available for the company as part of a policy of arresting and reversing production decline.

South America

Sales to customers in South America accounted for 18% of our sales of tubular products and services in 2018, compared to 20% in 2017 and 26% in 2016.

Our largest market in South America is Argentina. We also have significant sales in Brazil and Colombia.

We have manufacturing subsidiaries in Argentina, Brazil and Colombia. Our seamless pipe manufacturing facility in Venezuela was nationalized in 2009.

Our sales in South America are sensitive to the international price of oil and its impact on the drilling activity of participants in the oil and gas sectors, as well as to general economic conditions in these countries. In addition, sales in Argentina, as well as export sales from our manufacturing facilities in Argentina, are affected by governmental actions and policies, such as the taxation of oil and gas exports, measures affecting gas prices in the domestic market and other matters affecting the investment climate. Sales in Brazil are also affected by governmental actions and policies and their consequences, such as measures relating to the taxation and ownership of oil and gas production activities and the operations of Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. (“Petrobras”).

A principal component of our marketing strategy in South American markets is the establishment of long-term supply agreements and Rig Direct® services with national and international oil and gas companies operating in those markets.

In Argentina, we have a significant share of the market for OCTG products. We have longstanding business relationships with YPF S.A. (“YPF”), the Argentine state-controlled company, and with other operators in the oil and gas sector. We strengthened our relationship with YPF in 2013 through a long-term business alliance, which we renewed for an additional five years at the beginning of 2018, under which we provide Rig Direct® services with the objective of reducing YPF’s operational costs as it aims to increase production through investments in Argentina’s shale oil and gas reserves. In spite of the 2014 drop in international oil prices, drilling activity was sustained for most of 2015 and 2016 before falling significantly at the end of the year, when drilling in the southern part of the country came to a halt. The change in the Argentine government that occurred in December 2015 is resulting in significant changes in domestic energy policies, including the gradual normalization of domestic gas and energy prices. The new policies are encouraging investment in the Vaca Muerta shale play, which is considered to be one of the world’s most promising unconventional reserves. In 2018, there was a significant increase in investments in Vaca Muerta, led by Tecpetrol’s investment in the Fortin de Piedra gas resource.

In Brazil, we have a longstanding business relationship with Petrobras. We supply Petrobras with casing (including premium connections) and line pipe products, most of which are produced in our Brazilian welded pipe facility, for both offshore and onshore applications. With the development of Brazil’s deepwater pre-salt complex, our mix of products sold in Brazil has evolved from one including mainly line pipe for onshore pipeline projects to one which includes large diameter conductor and surface casing and line pipe for use in deepwater applications. Consumption of OCTG products in Brazil stabilized in 2017 and 2018, after falling in the period 2014-2016 as Petrobras had reduced its investments in response to budgetary constraints, concentrating on developing its most productive reserves in the pre-salt fields and halting other investments. Demand for line pipe for pipeline projects has declined to very low levels with only one major project implemented in the past four years. In response to market-opening measures and the attractiveness of the deepwater reserves, major oil companies have increased their investments in Brazil and this could lead to increased activity in future years. Our sales in the local market are currently mostly concentrated on large diameter conductors and surface casing with connectors for the pre-salt and other offshore developments, as well as smaller diameter casing for use in offshore and in the remaining onshore exploration and production activity.

In Colombia, we have established a leading position in the market for OCTG products since 2006, following our acquisition of Tubocaribe, a welded pipe manufacturing facility located in Cartagena. Although the market grew rapidly when oil prices were high as the country encouraged investment in its hydrocarbon industry and opened its national oil company to private investment, drilling activity in Colombia was deeply affected by the 2014 collapse in oil prices and fell to a very low level in 2016. However, activity recovered in 2017 and 2018 in response to the increase in oil prices. Our principal customer in Colombia is Ecopetrol S.A., which we supply with Rig Direct® services and with whom we renewed a long-term agreement in the beginning of 2018. We have recently strengthened our industrial position in Colombia through investing in the installation of modern heat treatment, pipe threading and processing facilities which enables us to serve this market with more local industrial content and our customers with more efficient Rig Direct® services.

In Guyana, the new Lisa deepwater offshore play is being developed and, in 2018, we began providing casing for the development wells in this play under Rig Direct® conditions.

We have been present in the Venezuelan OCTG market for many years and we maintain ongoing business relationships with Petróleos de Venezuela S.A. (“PDVSA”) and the joint venture operators in the oil and gas sector. Our sales in Venezuela may be negatively affected following the recent imposition of U.S. sanctions against PDVSA and its subsidiaries. Our activities in connection with Venezuela do not violate any U.S. or foreign law, and Tenaris has procedures in place designed to ensure that such activities comply with all applicable U.S. and other international export control and economic sanctions laws and regulations. See Item 3.D. “Key Information – Risk Factors – Risks Relating to Our Business – We could be subject to regulatory risks associated with our international operations”; Item 5.D. “Operating and Financial Review and Prospects – Trend Information”; and note 30 “Nationalization of Venezuelan Subsidiaries” to our audited consolidated financial statements included in this annual report.

Europe

Sales to customers in Europe accounted for 9% of our sales of tubular products and services in 2018, compared to 10% in 2017 and 14% in 2016.

Our single largest country market in Europe is Italy. The market for steel pipes in Italy (as in much of the European Union) is affected by general industrial production trends, especially in the mechanical and automotive industry, and by investment in power generation, petrochemical and oil refining facilities. Sales to the mechanical and automotive industries and for HPI and power generation projects in Italy and the rest of Europe over the past three years have been affected by lower prices reflecting increased competitive pressures, but volumes have been relatively stable.

In Europe, we also have significant sales to the oil and gas sector, which have grown in recent years, with exploration activity taking place in new areas such as unconventional shale plays in Eastern Europe and offshore drilling in the Black Sea, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Barents Sea, together with ongoing investment in the more traditional areas of the North Sea, Romania, Turkey and Russia. Demand from these markets is affected by oil and gas prices in the international markets and their consequent impact on oil and gas drilling activities in these areas. In addition, U.S. and European sanctions are affecting demand for our premium pipe products in Russia and limited exploration success in unconventional shale plays in Eastern Europe has led international operators to cut back on their investments in this area.

In February 2019, we announced the formation of a joint venture with PAO Severstal, a leading Russian flat steel producer, to build and operate a welded pipe mill to manufacture OCTG products in Surgut, Western Siberia, which is expected to begin production in late 2021. Our share in the joint venture is 49%.

Middle East and Africa

Sales to customers in the Middle East and Africa accounted for 21% of our sales of tubular products and services in 2018, compared to 19% in 2017 and 26% in 2016.

Our sales in the region remain sensitive to international prices of oil and gas and their impact on drilling activities as well as to the production policies pursued by OPEC, many of whose members are located in this region. In the past few years, oil and gas producing countries in the Middle East, led by Saudi Arabia, have increased investments to develop gas reserves to fuel regional gas-based industrial development, which have positively affected their consumption of premium OCTG products. Saudi Arabia, in particular, has shown strong growth in sour and high pressure gas field drilling activity. They have also maintained and, in some cases, increased investments to offset decline and add oil production capacity. Additionally, in the eastern Mediterranean, vast reserves of natural gas have been discovered, some of which have been targeted for fast track development. In Africa, international oil companies increased investments in exploration and production in offshore projects in 2012 and 2013 but began to postpone or reduce their investment commitments in 2014 due to the high cost of offshore project developments and a lower success rate in exploration activity. Since 2015, following the oil price collapse, exploration activity has been sharply cut back and major project commitments have been postponed. The effect on demand was compounded by the high inventory levels held in the region.

In the past few years, uprisings affected drilling activity in countries such as Syria, Libya and Yemen and, in the case of Libya, the oil and gas industry was effectively shut down in 2011. In addition, in recent years, U.S. and E.U. sanctions have affected production and exports in Iran.

Our sales in the Middle East and Africa could be adversely affected by political and other events in the region, such as armed conflicts, terrorist attacks and social unrest, that could materially impact the operations of companies active in the region’s oil and gas industry. Our sales in the region can also be affected by the levels of inventories held by the principal national oil companies in the region and their effect on purchasing requirements. For example, Saudi Aramco, after purchasing pipes in excess of its consumption requirements in 2013 and the first half of 2014, subsequently substantially reduced purchases during the second half of 2014 and throughout 2015, notwithstanding increased drilling activity, as it reduced inventory levels. In the past three years, purchasing has been more in line with consumption patterns.

Over the past three years, our sales in the Middle East have been relatively stable but sales in sub-Saharan Africa have been affected by the slowdown in drilling activity and investments in deepwater projects. On the other hand, our sales in the second half of 2017 and throughout 2018 were boosted by sales of line pipe for offshore gas projects in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 2018, these sales came to a peak amounting to 8% of total sales, which is unlikely to be repeated in the near future.

In January 2019, we completed the acquisition of 47.79% of Saudi Steel Pipe Ltd, a listed welded steel pipe producer in Saudi Arabia. SSP produces OCTG, line pipe and commercial pipe products mainly for the local market. It is qualified to supply Saudi Aramco for certain products. Through this investment, Tenaris will increase its local industrial presence in an important oil and gas market where policies are being implemented to diversify the economy and increase local manufacturing.

Asia Pacific

Sales to customers in the Asia Pacific accounted for 4% of our sales of tubular products and services in 2018, compared to 4% in 2017 and 3% in 2016.

We have a significant presence in the region with local production facilities in Indonesia, China and Japan and, in recent years, we have established service centers in Australia and Thailand.

Sales to Indonesia and other markets in South East Asia and Oceania are mainly affected by the level of oil and gas drilling activity, particularly offshore drilling activity. The collapse in the price of oil has deeply affected drilling activity and our sales throughout the region, where drilling is mainly onshore. In 2016, however, we won a significant long-term agreement to provide pipes with Rig Direct® services in Thailand which has made Thailand our largest market in the region. Our future sales in Thailand, however, may be affected by recent changes in the ownership of oil and gas development concessions.

Our sales in China are concentrated on premium OCTG products used in oil and gas drilling activities. Over the past years, China has significantly reduced its imports of OCTG products as local producers compete ferociously in an oversupplied market. We continue, however, to seek new markets in niche applications and in 2016 we opened a components facility for processing pipes for use in airbags for automotives. More recently, we have begun to supply pipes under a Rig Direct® contract for a shale gas operation.

In Japan, our subsidiary, NKKTubes, competes against other domestic producers. The market for steel pipe products in Japan is mostly industrial and depends on general factors affecting domestic investment, including production activity.

Others

Our other products and services include sucker rods used in oil extraction activities, coiled tubes used in oil and gas extraction activities, industrial equipment of various specifications and for diverse applications, sales of pipe for construction activities from our Italian Piombino mill and sales of raw materials and energy that exceed our internal requirements. In January 2017, we sold our electrical conduit pipes business in the United States. Net sales of other products and services amounted to 6% of total net sales in 2018, compared to 6% of total net sales in 2017, as sales of sucker rods and coiled tubes increased.

Competition

The global market for steel pipe products is highly competitive. Seamless steel pipe products, which are used extensively in the oil and gas industry particularly for offshore, high pressure, high stress and other complex applications, are produced in specialized mills using round steel billets and specially produced ingots. Welded steel pipe products are produced in mills which process steel coils and plates into steel pipes. Steel companies that manufacture steel coils and other steel products but do not operate specialized seamless steel mills are generally not competitors in the market for seamless steel pipe products, although they often produce welded steel pipes or sell steel coils and plates used to produce welded steel pipes.

The production of steel pipe products following the stringent requirements of major oil and gas companies operating in offshore and other complex operations requires the development of specific skills and significant investments in manufacturing facilities. By contrast, steel pipe products for standard applications can be produced in most seamless pipe mills worldwide and sometimes compete with welded pipe products for such applications including OCTG applications. Welded pipe, however, is not generally considered a satisfactory substitute for seamless steel pipe in high-pressure or high-stress applications.

Over the past decade, substantial investments have been made, especially in China but also in other regions around the world, to increase production capacity of seamless steel pipe products. Production capacity for more specialized product grades has also increased. With the downturn between 2014 and 2016 in the price of oil and demand for tubes for oil and gas drilling, the overcapacity in steel pipe and seamless steel pipe production worldwide has become acute, and now extends beyond commodity grades. The competitive environment has, as a result, become more intense, and we expect that this will continue for some time. Effective competitive differentiation will be a key factor for Tenaris.

Our principal competitors in steel pipe markets worldwide are described below.

Producers of steel pipe products can maintain strong competitive positions in markets where they have their pipe manufacturing facilities due to logistical and other advantages that permit them to offer value-added services and maintain strong relationships with domestic customers, particularly in the oil and gas sectors. Our subsidiaries have established strong ties with major consumers of steel pipe products in their home markets, reinforced by Rig Direct® services, as discussed above.

Capital Expenditure Program

During 2018, our capital expenditures, including investments at our plants and investments in information systems, amounted to $349 million, compared to $558 million in 2017 and $787 million in 2016. Of these capital expenditures, investment at our plants amounted to $318 million in 2018, compared to $525 million in 2017 and $757 million in 2016.

In 2018, we have fully consolidated the Rig Direct® service in the United States and Canadian markets and are working to increase differentiation through improving service quality and extending integration with customer operations. In addition, we focused on enhancing automation at our industrial process, product differentiation and competitiveness, increasing local finishing capabilities, as well as enhancing safety and minimizing environmental impact of our plants.

The major highlights of our capital spending program during 2018 included: investments in automation at our industrial system worldwide, increase in the capacity of automotive components, investments at the steel shop and laboratory in Mexico, completion of the expansion of heat treatment capacity at our mill in Italy, completion of construction and start-up investments at Bay City, USA, and installation of a new waste water treatment plant in our mill in Campana, Argentina.

Capital expenditures in 2019 are expected to remain in line with the level of 2018, including the completion of some of the projects started in 2018 and maintenance interventions mainly at our facilities in Argentina, Mexico and Romania.

In addition to capital expenditures at our plants, we have invested in information systems for the integration of our production, commercial and managerial activities, together with investments in cybersecurity for the protection of our information technology and our industrial systems. These investments are intended to promote the further integration of our operating facilities and enhance our ability to provide value-added services to customers worldwide. Investments in information systems totaled $32 million in 2018, compared to $28 million in 2017 and $29 million in 2016.

Raw Materials and Energy

The majority of our seamless steel pipe products are manufactured in integrated steelmaking operations using the electric arc furnace route, with the principal raw materials being steel scrap, DRI, hot briquetted iron (“HBI”), pig iron and ferroalloys. In Argentina, we produce our own DRI from iron ore using natural gas as a reductant. Our integrated steelmaking operations consume significant quantities of electric energy, purchased from the local market. Our welded steel pipe products are processed from purchased steel coils and plates. Although the weight of the different steelmaking raw materials and steel, vary among the different production facilities in our industrial system, depending on the specifications of the final products and other factors, on average steel scrap, pig iron, HBI and DRI represent approximately 20% of our steel pipe products’ costs, while steel in the form of billets or coils represents approximately 20%, with direct energy accounting for approximately 5%.

The aforementioned inputs of raw material are subject to price volatility caused by supply, political and economic situations, financial variables and other unpredictable factors. For further information on price volatility, see Item 3.D. “Key Information – Risk Factors – Risks Relating to Our Industry – Increases in the cost of raw materials, energy and other costs, limitations or disruptions to the supply of raw materials and energy, and price mismatches between raw materials and our products may hurt our profitability”. The costs of steelmaking raw materials and of steel coils and plates increased during 2018 with high levels of volatility.

Steel scrap, pig iron and HBI

Steel scrap, pig iron and HBI for our steelmaking operations are sourced from local, regional and international sources. In Argentina, we produce our own DRI and source ferrous scrap domestically through a wholly owned scrap collecting and processing subsidiary. In Italy, we purchase pig iron and ferrous scrap from local and regional markets. In Mexico, we import our pig iron and HBI requirements and purchase scrap from domestic and international markets. In Romania, we source ferrous scrap mainly from the domestic market and we import pig iron.

International prices for steel scrap, pig iron and HBI can vary substantially in accordance with supply and demand conditions in the international steel industry. Overall costs for these materials increased in 2018, following steady increases in world steel prices. As a reference, prices for Scrap Shredded U.S. East Coast, published by CRU, averaged $284 per ton in 2017 and $338 per ton in 2018, descending to levels around $300 per ton at the beginning of 2019.

Iron ore

We consume Iron ore in the form of pellets, for the production of DRI in Argentina. Siderca’s annual consumption of iron ore during 2018 was approximately 840,000 tons, supplied mainly from Brazil by Vale International S.A.

Iron Ore IODEX 62% Fe (CFR North China) prices, published by Platts, were stable in 2018 with an annual average of $69 per ton, fluctuating between $63 per ton and $80 per ton. The Iron Ore DR grade Pellets market has been particularly tight since Samarco shut down operations in 2015 and global demand continues to grow. This has impacted Iron Ore Direct Reduction Pellet Premium that have increased, according to market references (Platts), from $42 per ton in 2016 to approximately $54 in 2017 and approximately $63 per ton in 2018. Worldwide iron ore pellets supply could be affected, and consequently prices could increase in the future, following the accident that occurred in January 2019 in Vale International S.A.’s Feijão Mine in Brumadinho (Minas Gerais - Brazil).

Round steel bars

We mainly satisfy our steel bars and ingots requirements with materials produced in our steelmaking facilities in Romania, Italy, Mexico and Argentina. We complement this internal supply with purchases of steel bars and ingots from third parties as required, and particularly for use in our seamless steel pipe facilities in Japan, Canada, Mexico and the USA.

In Japan, we purchase these materials from JFE, our partner in NKKTubes. These purchases are made under a supply arrangement pursuant to which the purchase price varies in relation to changes in the cost of production. As a result of their location within a larger production complex operated by the supplier, our operations in Japan are substantially dependent on these contracts for the supply of raw materials and energy. JFE uses imported iron ore, coal and ferroalloys as principal raw materials for producing steel bars at Keihin.

In Canada we mainly source our steel bars requirements from our facilities mentioned above. Occasionally, we purchase some of these materials from Rio Tinto Fer et Titane, Inc., a Canadian producer of titanium dioxide and high purity iron.

In Mexico, we have been sourcing steel bars from Ternium’s Mexican facilities since 2011, under a long term contract that grants us, during an eight-year period, preferential right to purchase up to 250,000 tons of round steel bars per year.

In the United States, we currently use steel bars produced in our integrated facilities in Romania, Italy and Mexico and have recently been granted an exclusion from Section 232 tariffs for the imports of these steel bars.

Steel coils and plates

For the production of welded steel pipe products, we purchase steel coils and steel plates principally from domestic producers for processing into welded steel pipes. We have welded pipe operations in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia and the United States.

Steel coil market prices increased in 2018. As a reference, prices for hot rolled coils, HRC Midwest USA Mill, published by CRU, averaged $680 per ton in 2017 and $915 per ton in 2018, but have shown a recent downward trend reaching $746 per ton in February 2019.

For our welded pipe operations in the United States, a significant part of our requirements for steel coils are supplied by Nucor Steel which is our principal supplier in the United States. Nucor Steel has a steel coil manufacturing facility in Hickman, Arkansas, near to our principal welded pipe facility in the United States. To secure a supply of steel coils for our U.S. facilities, in January 2018 we renewed a long-term purchase agreement with Nucor Steel which is due to expire at the end of 2020.

In Canada, we have long-term agreements with our main steel suppliers for our welded pipe operations with prices referenced to market levels in U.S. dollars (i.e., CRU HRC index). Among the suppliers is ArcelorMittal Dofasco, which has steel coil manufacturing facilities in Hamilton, Ontario. Additionally, we purchase steel on a spot basis from Essar Steel Algoma, which has steel coil manufacturing facilities in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.

We also purchase steel coils and plates for our welded pipe operations in South America (Colombia, Brazil and Argentina) principally from Usiminas and Gerdau S.A. (“Gerdau”) in Brazil, from Ternium Argentina S.A. (“Ternium Argentina”), a subsidiary of Ternium in Argentina, and from Ternium’s facilities in Mexico. In addition, in Brazil we also source plates and coils from international suppliers when not produced domestically, for example, we purchased carbon steel to the supplier Voestalpine Grobblech GmbH to manufacture line pipes and buckle arrestors for Belayim Petroleum Co. (Petrobel)’s Zohr gas field project in Egypt.

Energy

We consume substantial quantities of electric energy at our electric steel shops in Argentina, Italy, Mexico and Romania. In Argentina, up to the end of January 2019 we had a 160 megawatt power generation plant located at San Nicolás that reached the end of its useful life, which together with a smaller thermo-electric power generating plant located within the Campana facility, was sufficient to supply the requirements of our steelmaking facility at Campana. Currently, our energy requirements in Argentina are mainly satisfied from the local market. In Dalmine, Italy, we have a 120 megawatt power generation facility, which is designed to have sufficient capacity to meet most of the electric power requirements of the operations at peak load, excess power is sold to third-party consumers while heat is sold for district heating. In Mexico, our electric power requirements are mainly satisfied by Techgen, a natural gas-fired combined cycle electric power plant in the Pesquería area of the State of Nuevo León, while a small portion of our power requirements are furnished by the Mexican government-owned Comisión Federal de Electricidad, or the Federal Electric Power Commission. In Romania, we source power from the local market.

We consume substantial volumes of natural gas in Argentina, particularly in the generation of DRI and to operate our power generation facilities. Tecpetrol is our only natural gas supplier in Argentina. Tecpetrol is a subsidiary of San Faustin, which supplies us under market conditions and according to local regulations.

We have transportation capacity agreements with Transportadora de Gas del Norte S.A. (“TGN”), a company in which San Faustin holds a significant but non-controlling interest, corresponding to capacity of 1,000,000 cubic meters per day until April 2027. In order to meet our transportation requirements for natural gas above volumes contracted with TGN, we also have agreements with Naturgy S.A. (formerly Gas Natural Ban S.A.), for a maximum interruptible transportation capacity corresponding to approximately 970,000 cubic meters per day. For the final transportation phase, we have a supply contract with Naturgy S.A. that will be in force until April 2020.

In addition to the normal amount of gas consumed at our Italian plants, we also consume substantial quantities of natural gas in connection with the operation of our power generation facility in Italy. Our natural gas requirements in Italy are currently supplied by Eni S.p.A.

Our costs for electric energy and natural gas vary from country to country. In the last few years energy costs have remained generally flat thanks to the increasing availability of natural gas from shale plays and additional renewable energy generation at more competitive prices. However, energy costs in Argentina did not decline substantially. The cost of natural gas for industrial use in Argentina began to decrease with the increase in production of natural gas from Vaca Muerta. The demand for natural gas in winter continues to outpace supply, which is why Argentina must import natural gas from Bolivia, Chile and Liquefied natural gas (“LNG”) from the international market, in addition to using liquid fuel to generate electricity. Also, energy supply to industrial users can be restricted during the Argentine winter and summer, although due to a higher offer of gas and electrical energy and a more organized framework these interruptions became less frequent. See Item 3.D. “Key Information – Risk Factors – Risks Relating to Our Industry – Increases in the cost of raw materials, energy and other costs, limitations or disruptions to the supply of raw materials and energy; and price mismatches between raw materials and our products may hurt our profitability” and Item 3.D. “Key Information – Risk Factors – Risks Relating to Our Business – Adverse economic or political conditions in the countries where we operate or sell our products and services may decrease our sales or disrupt our manufacturing operations, thereby adversely affecting our revenues, profitability and financial condition”.

Ferroalloys

For each of our steel shops we coordinate our purchases of ferroalloys worldwide. The international costs of ferroalloys can vary substantially, within a short period. Prices for the main ferroalloys consumed by Tenaris increased sharply during 2017 and 2018. Although some materials have corrected downwards by end of 2018, current prices remain well above 2016 averages.

Product Quality Standards

Our steel products (tubular products, accessories and sucker rods) are manufactured in accordance with the specifications of the American Petroleum Institute (API), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the International Standardization Organization (ISO), the Japan Industrial Standards (JIS), and European Standards (EN), among other standards. The products must also satisfy our proprietary standards as well as our customers’ requirements. We maintain an extensive quality assurance and control program to ensure that our products continue to satisfy proprietary and industry standards and are competitive from a product quality standpoint with products offered by our competitors.

We currently maintain, for all our manufacturing facilities and services centers, a Quality Management System Certified to ISO 9001:2015 by Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance, and API product licenses granted by API, which are requirements for selling to the major oil and gas companies, which have rigorous quality standards. Our Quality Management System (QMS), based on the ISO 9001 and API Q1 specifications assures that products and services comply with customer requirements from the acquisition of raw materials to the delivery of the final product and services. The QMS is designed to ensure the reliability and improvement of the product and the manufacturing operations processes as well as the associated services.

All of our mills involved in the manufacturing of material for the automotive market are certified according to the standard IATF 16949 by Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance.

Research and Development

Research and development, or R&D, of new products and processes to meet the increasingly stringent requirements of our customers is an important aspect of our business.

R&D activities are carried out primarily at our global R&D network with main office at Amsterdam in the Netherlands and specialized research and testing facilities located at Campana in Argentina, at Veracruz in Mexico, at Dalmine in Italy, and at the product testing facilities of NKKTubes in Japan. Additionally we have a Wedge Technology Center in Houston, Texas, USA. We strive to engage some of the world’s leading industrial research institutions to solve the problems posed by the complexities of oil and gas projects with innovative applications. In addition, our global technical sales team is made up of experienced engineers who work with our customers to identify solutions for each particular oil and gas drilling environment.

Product R&D currently being undertaken are focused on the increasingly challenging energy markets and include:

In addition to R&D aimed at new or improved products, we continuously study opportunities to optimize our manufacturing processes. Recent projects in this area include modeling of rolling and finishing process and the development of different process controls, with the goal of improving product quality and productivity at our facilities.

We seek to protect our innovation, through the use of patents, trade secrets, trademarks and other intellectual property tools that allow us to differentiate ourselves from our competitors.

We spent $63 million in R&D in 2018, compared to $64 million in 2017 and $69 million in 2016.

Environmental Regulation

We are subject to a wide range of local, provincial and national laws, regulations, permit requirements and decrees relating to the protection of human health and the environment, including laws and regulations relating to hazardous materials and radioactive materials and environmental protection governing air emissions, water discharges and waste management. Laws and regulations protecting the environment have become increasingly complex and more stringent and expensive to implement in recent years. International environmental requirements vary from one jurisdiction to another.

The ultimate impact of complying with existing laws and regulations is not always clearly known or determinable since regulations under some of these laws are not yet effective or are undergoing revision. The expenditures necessary to remain in compliance with these laws and regulations, including site or other remediation costs, or costs incurred from potential environmental liabilities, could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and profitability. While we incur and will continue to incur, in expenditures to comply with applicable laws and regulations, there always remains a risk that environmental incidents or accidents may occur that may negatively affect our reputation or our operations.

Compliance with applicable environmental laws and regulations is a significant factor in our business. We have not been subject to any material penalty for any material environmental violation in the last five years, and we are not aware of any current material legal or administrative proceedings pending against us with respect to environmental matters which could have an adverse material impact on our financial condition or results of operations.

Insurance

We carry property damage, general liability and certain other insurance coverage in line with industry practice. Our current general liability coverage includes third party, employers, sudden and accidental seepage and pollution and product liability, up to a limit of $300 million. Our current property insurance has indemnification caps up to $250 million for direct damage, depending on the different plants; and a deductible of $100 million.

Disclosure Pursuant to Section 13(r) of the Exchange Act

Tenaris

The Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 (“ITRA”), created a new subsection (r) in Section 13 of the U.S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”), which requires a reporting issuer to provide disclosure if the issuer or any of its affiliates knowingly engaged in certain enumerated activities relating to Iran, including activities involving the Government of Iran. Tenaris is providing the following disclosure pursuant to Section 13(r).

In July 2015, the Islamic Republic of Iran entered into the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (“JCPOA”) with China, France, Germany, Russia, the United Kingdom and the U.S., which resulted in the partial lifting in January 2016 of certain sanctions and restrictions against Iran, including most U.S. secondary sanctions against such country. On May 8, 2018, the U.S. announced that it would cease participation in the JCPOA and would begin reimposing nuclear-related sanctions against Iran after a wind-down period. Following the U.S. withdrawal, the European Union updated Council Regulation (EC) No. 2271/96 of 22 November 1996 (the “EU Blocking Statute”), to expand its scope to cover the reimposed U.S. nuclear-related sanctions. The EU Blocking Statute aims to counteract the effects of the U.S. secondary sanctions.

Tenaris believes that its activities concerning Iran, described below, do not violate any U.S. or foreign law. In the cases described below, all deliveries of products and services and any other relevant activities by Tenaris ceased by the end of October 2018, that is, during the wind-down period and before the reimposing of the U.S. secondary sanctions. In addition, in all cases, Tenaris collected amounts owed for sales of goods or performance of services in accordance with OFAC regulations. Tenaris has procedures in place designed to ensure that such activities comply with all applicable U.S. and other international export control and economic sanctions laws and regulations.

Currently, Tenaris does not intend to continue exploring commercial opportunities with potential Iranian business partners nor does it intend to participate in tender offers by, or issue offers to provide products or services to, Iranian companies or their subsidiaries.

Previous pending payments:

2018 transactions and related activities :

Between January and May 2018, TGS participated in several tenders issued by the National Iranian Oil Company (“NIOC”), and its subsidiaries for the supply of OCTG casing, tubing, line pipe and accessories for oil and gas projects in Iran. Moreover, between January and May 2018, TGS and other non-U.S. subsidiaries of Tenaris issued offers to NIOC and other Iranian companies for the provision of goods and/or services. Except as otherwise specified below, none of such tenders or offers were accepted by NIOC or resulted in agreements with NIOC. As of May 2018, Tenaris ceased to participate in tenders and issuing offers to NIOC, its subsidiaries or other Iranian companies through TGS or other non-U.S. subsidiaries of Tenaris.

In October 2016, TGS entered into an agreement for the provision of technical field service assistance to Petropars Ltd. (“Petropars”), a subsidiary of NIOC, for its project located in the Salman gas field in Iran, for a total value of EUR0.04 million (approximately $0.04 million). TGS has been informed that Petropars operates the Salman project pursuant to a service contract with Iranian Offshore Oil Company, another subsidiary of NIOC. All services required to be performed by TGS for the benefit of Petropars were fully completed by 2016. On February 18, 2018, TGS collected the outstanding amount of EUR 0.004 million (approximately $0.005 million) owed by Petropars under this agreement . No delivery obligations under this agreement remained outstanding as of December 31, 2018.

In May 2016, TGS was awarded by Toos Payvand Co., a Tehran-based company, a spot purchase order for carbon steel pipes for the Esfahan Oil Refinery Project (end user NIOC), for a total value of EUR3.5 million (approximately $4.0 million). TGS delivered most of the items requested under such purchase order, for which the customer made advance payments, during 2017. By October 2018, during the wind-down period associated with the reimposition of U.S. secondary sanctions, TGS had delivered additional pending items for a total value of EUR0.1 million (approximately $0.1 million), except for 8 tons of carbon steel pipes valued EUR26 thousand (approximately $30 thousand). Shipments under this purchase order were suspended as of October 2018. Accordingly, as of December 31, 2018, TGS owes to Toos Payvand Co. an outstanding amount of EUR0.04 million (approximately $0.04 million) for undelivered goods.

In November 2017, Dalmine booked a purchase order with Buhlmann RFS Gmbh (a distributor located in Germany) for the provision of line pipes, which were originally intended for use in downstream activities in Iran for the Esfahan Oil Refinery Project (end user NIOC), for a total value of EUR0.6 million (approximately $0.7 million). During 2018, this order was cancelled and, therefore, no material was delivered for such project. Accordingly, no revenues were recorded for such order as of December 31, 2018.

During 2017, Dalmine booked four orders with Commerciale Tubi Acciaio (a distributor located in Italy) for the provision of line pipes for use in downstream activities in Iran, Kangan Project, for a total value of EUR0.9 million (approximately $1.1 million). During 2018, Dalmine received additional new orders for products to be used in that project in Iran for EUR0.5 million (approximately $0.5 million). By October 2018, Dalmine had delivered the material under the four orders procured in 2017. During 2018 Dalmine collected EUR1.4 million (approximately $1.6 million) and delivered all items under the new orders received in 2018. No delivery obligations under such purchase orders remained outstanding as of December 31, 2018.

In July 2017, TGS was awarded a spot order from Azar Ab Industries Co., for seamless tubes for manufacturing of industrial boilers for Esfahan Oil Refinery in Iran, for a total value of approximately EUR1.2 million (approximately $1.4 million), of which EUR0.2 million (approximately $0.2 million) were collected as of December 31, 2017. By October 2018, TGS had delivered all outstanding items under such purchase order and during 2018 TGS collected EUR 1.0 million (approximately $1.1 million), representing the full outstanding amount thereunder. No delivery obligations under such purchase order remained outstanding as of December 31, 2018.

During 2017, Dalmine was awarded some spot orders from Mapna International FZE, for carbon steel and low alloyed pipes and tubes delivered to Mapna Boiler and Equipment Engineering and Manufacturing Co., for the manufacturing of boilers for conventional power plants in Iran for a total value of approximately EUR2 million (approximately $2.4 million). By October 2018, Dalmine had delivered all outstanding items under such purchase order, of which EUR0.4 million (approximately $0.5 million) were shipped during 2018. Moreover, during 2018 Dalmine collected EUR1.6 million (approximately $1.8 million), representing the full outstanding amount thereunder. No delivery obligations under such purchase order remained outstanding as of December 31, 2018.

During 2018, Dalmine was awarded new spot orders from Mapna International FZE for a total value of EUR4.1 million (approximately $4.7 million). By October 2018, Dalmine had delivered all items thereunder. During 2018, Dalmine collected EUR4.0 million (approximately $4.5 million) under the spot orders; an outstanding balance of EUR0.1 million (approximately $0.1 million) was due as of December 31, 2018. Dalmine expects to collect such outstanding amounts during 2019 to the extent permitted under OFAC regulations. No other obligations are due under these purchase orders.

In December 2016, TGS entered into a distribution agreement with Fanavaran Energy Part Co. (Part Technologist of Energy Company) (“PTEC”), a private Iranian company, for pipes used in downstream activities, such as refineries, petrochemical and gas processing. In August 2017, PTEC placed a purchase order for a total value of EUR1.5 million (approximately $1.7 million). By October 2018, TGS had delivered all outstanding items under such purchase order. During 2018 TGS collected EUR1.5 million (approximately $1.7 million), representing the full amount thereunder. No delivery obligations under such purchase order remained outstanding as of December 31, 2018.

During 2018 TGS entered into several confidentiality agreements for the purpose of sharing information with potential Iranian business partners, some of which were companies controlled by the Government of Iran, with the aim of exploring commercial opportunities relating to the supply of goods and services to NIOC or its subsidiaries. No revenues were attributable to these activities.

In June 2017, TGS renewed its Agency Agreement (initially entered into in June 2016) with Industrials SGC Ltd., a U.K.-based agent, which expired on June 12, 2018. The purpose of such agreement was to promote and market certain products manufactured by non-U.S. subsidiaries of Tenaris in the territory of Iran. Revenues attributable to this Agency Agreement for the year ended December 31, 2018, amounted to EUR8.2 million (approximately $9.7 million).

On February 26, 2018, TGS was awarded by Industrial SGC Ltd., as customer, a spot purchase order for corrosion resistant alloy pipes for the Phase 12 South Pars Gas Field Project by Petropars, a subsidiary of NIOC, for end use by Pars Oil and Gas Company, another subsidiary of NIOC, for a total value of EUR1 million (approximately $1.1 million). An export license required for this transaction was timely obtained in May 2018. All material was delivered by October 2018 and payment of the full amount thereunder was collected during 2018.

During 2018 Dalmine received an order from UK-based company BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd. for EUR0.2 million (approximately $0.2 million) for the provision of casing and coupling to be used in the Rhum Gas Oilfield (located in the U.K.). The partners in the Rhum Gas Oilfield are BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd. (50%) and Iranian Oil Co. UK Ltd. (50%), a subsidiary of NIOC. All items were delivered by October 2018. An outstanding balance of EUR0.2 million (approximately $0.2 million) was due by BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd. as of December 31, 2018. Dalmine expects to collect such outstanding amounts during 2019 to the extent permitted under OFAC regulations. No other obligations are outstanding under these purchase orders.

Tenaris’s total sales revenue for 2018 derived from the foregoing transactions amounted to approximately $11.2 million. The estimated net profits from such transactions, after internal cost allocation, were in the range of $3.7 million.

Tenaris’s Affiliates

Pursuant to Section 13(r) of the Exchange Act, Tenaris is also required to disclose whether any of its affiliates have engaged in certain Iran-related activities and transactions. Tenova S.p.A. (“Tenova”), an Italian supplier of equipment for the mining and the steelmaking industry, as well as Techint – Compagnia Tecnica Internazionale S.p.A. (“Techint CTI”), an Italian provider of engineering, procurement, construction, operation and management services mainly in the oil & gas, refining, petrochemical, power, industrial and infrastructure sectors, are indirectly controlled by San Faustin and, accordingly, are deemed “affiliates” of Tenaris, as that term is defined in Exchange Act Rule 12b-2.

In response to our inquiry, Tenova informed us that:

Tenova informed us that its total sales revenue for 2018 with regard to the foregoing transactions amounted to $15.5 million. Tenova also estimated that its net profits from such transactions, after internal cost allocation and taxes, were in the range of $6 million.

In response to our inquiry, Techint CTI informed us that:

We conduct all our operations through subsidiaries. The following table shows the principal subsidiaries of the Company and its direct and indirect ownership in each subsidiary as of December 31, 2018, 2017 and 2016.

(*) All percentages rounded.

(a) Tenaris Investments S.a.r.l. holds 100% of Hydril's subsidiaries shares except for Technical Drilling & Production Services Nigeria. Ltd where it holds 80%.

(b) Tenaris holds 97,5% of Tenaris Supply Chain S.A, 60% of Gepnaris S.A. and 40% of Tubular Technical Services and Pipe Coaters, and 49% of Amaja Tubular Services Limited and Tubular Services Angola Ltd.

Other Investments

Ternium

We have a significant investment in Ternium, a Luxembourg company controlled by San Faustin, whose securities are listed on the NYSE. As of December 31, 2018, the Company held 11.46% of Ternium’s share capital (including treasury shares).

The Company is a party to a shareholders’ agreement with Techint Holdings S.à.r.l. (“Techint Holdings”), a wholly owned subsidiary of San Faustin and Ternium’s main shareholder, dated January 9, 2006, pursuant to which Techint Holdings is required to take actions within its power to cause one of the members of Ternium’s board of directors to be nominated by the Company and any directors nominated by the Company only to be removed pursuant to previous written instructions by the Company. The Company and Techint Holdings also agreed to cause any vacancies on Ternium’s board of directors to be filled with new directors nominated by either the Company or Techint Holdings, as applicable. The shareholders’ agreement will remain in effect so long as each of the parties holds at least 5% of the shares of Ternium or until it is terminated by either the Company or Techint Holdings pursuant to its terms. Carlos Condorelli was nominated by the Company as a director of Ternium pursuant to this shareholders’ agreement.

Usiminas

On January 16, 2012, Confab, acquired 5.0% of the shares with voting rights and 2.5% of the total share capital in Usiminas, a leading Brazilian producer of high quality flat steel products used in the energy, automotive and other industries. The acquisition was part of a larger transaction pursuant to which Confab and Ternium’s subsidiaries Ternium Investments S.à.r.l., Ternium Argentina and Prosid Investments S.A. (jointly, the “Ternium Entities”) formed the so-called T/T Group and joined Usiminas’ existing control group through the acquisition of ordinary shares representing 27.7% of Usiminas’ total voting capital and 13.8% of Usiminas’ total share capital. In addition, the T/T Group entered into a shareholders’ agreement with the NSSMC Group (formed by NSSMC, Mitsubishi Corporation do Brasil S.A. and Metal One Corporation) and Previdência Usiminas, an Usiminas employee fund, governing the parties’ rights within the Usiminas control group.

Following the subscription in 2016 of 1.3 million Usiminas preferred shares and 11.5 million Usiminas ordinary shares by Confab, as of December 31, 2018, Confab owned 36.5 million ordinary shares and 1.3 million preferred shares of Usiminas, representing 5.2% of Usiminas’ total voting capital and 3.1% of Usiminas’ total share capital.

In 2014, a conflict arose within the T/T Group and NSSMC with respect to the governance of Usiminas, including with respect to the rules applicable to the appointment of senior managers, the application of the shareholders’ agreement in matters involving fiduciary duties, and generally with respect to Usiminas’ business strategy.

On February 8, 2018, the dispute with NSSMC was resolved, and on April 10, 2018, the T/T Group entities (including Confab), the NSSMC Group entities and Previdência Usiminas entered into a new shareholders’ agreement for Usiminas, amending and restating the previously existing shareholders’ agreement (“the New SHA”). Usiminas’ control group now holds, in the aggregate, 483.6 million ordinary shares bound to the New SHA, representing approximately 68.6% of Usiminas’ voting capital, with the T/T Group holding approximately 47.1% of the total shares held by the control group (39.5% corresponding to the Ternium Entities and the other 7.6% corresponding to Confab); the NSSMC Group holding approximately 45.9% of the total shares held by the control group; and Previdência Usiminas holding the remaining 7% of the total shares held by the control group.

The New SHA reflects the agreed-upon corporate governance rules for Usiminas, including, among others, an alternation mechanism for the nomination of each of the chief executive officer and the chairman of the board of directors, as well as a mechanism for the nomination of other members of Usiminas’ executive board. The New SHA also incorporates an exit mechanism consisting of a buy-and-sell procedure, exercisable at any time during the term of the New SHA after the fourth-and-a-half-year anniversary from the coming election of Usiminas’ executive board in May 2018. Such exit mechanism shall apply with respect to shares held by the NSSMC Group and the T/T Group, and would allow either Ternium (on behalf of the T/T Group) or NSSMC to purchase all or a majority of the Usiminas shares held by the other shareholder group.

In connection with the execution of the New SHA, the Ternium Entities and Confab amended and restated their separate shareholders’ agreement governing their respective rights and obligations as members of the T/T Group to include provisions relating to the exit mechanism and generally to conform such separate shareholders’ agreement to the other provisions of the New SHA.

Techgen

Techgen is a Mexican joint venture company owned 48% by Ternium, 30% by Tecpetrol and 22% by Tenaris. Techgen operates a natural gas-fired combined cycle electric power plant in the Pesquería area of the State of Nuevo León, Mexico. Tenaris, Ternium and Tecpetrol are parties to a shareholder’s agreement relating to the governance of Techgen.

For a description of our property, plants and equipment, please see B. “– Business Overview – Production Process and Facilities” and “– Business Overview – Capital Expenditure Program”.